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PRINCIPLES AND METHODS

OF

TEACHING

A MANUAL FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS, READING
CIRCLES, AND THE TEACHERS OF ELEMEN-
TARY, INTERMEDIATE, AND
HIGHER SCHOOLS

BY

CHARLES C. BOYER, Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGICS, KEYSTONE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KUTZ-

TOWN, PA., AND AUTHOR OF " CONCRETE PSYCHOLOGY,"

** PSYCHIC INITIATIVE IN EDUCATION," ETC.

PHILADELPHIA

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

1906

COPTKIGHT,

J. B. LippiNcoTT Company,

Electrotyped and Printed by J, Q, Lippincqtt Company, Philadelphia, U.S. At

PREFACE.

The art of teaching should have its fouudations in science ;
for then and only then will teaching cease to be mechanical
obedience to "authority." Such obedience was the curse of
the " old" education. " Tradition" and " prescription" deter-
mined the methods not only in oriental systems of education,
but also in the later civilizations of Europe. The principle of
authority has not wholly disappeared from modern school-
rooms. Rational methods of teaching, indeed, are the excep-
tion rather than the rule in the great mass of American
teachers.

The individual teacher must have part in the construction
of the science in which his art is to have its foundations.
Otherwise the " new" education will simply substitute one
tyrant for another. In other words, obedience to principles
of philosophy, though it be the best philosophy, is only slavery
as long as the teacher who submits to such laws cannot justify
these in his own consciousness.

The great mass of teachers is not equal to the task of con-
structing the complex science of education independently.
This task implies not only analytic knowledge of human
nature in its manifold relations, but also the power of syn-
thetic thought. The great body of teachers, therefore, need
supervision in constructing their system of educational prin-
ciples. It is hoped that the plan of the present treatise may
supply at least a portion of the needed supervision.

In complexity of " thought" and " language," the needs of
the general reader as well as those of Normal Schools and Col-

3

5.^°\5.'^

4 PEEFACE

leges were kept in mind. The psychological analyses and in-
ductions, and all derivatives, have been adapted in vocabulary
and composition to the ordinary reader, while the systematic
thinking required throughout the book will employ the best
powers of readers of higher attainments.

The cyclopedic scope of the treatise is justified by the cyclo-
pedic courses of study in our common schools. Experience
shows that it will not suffice to train teachers in the principles
and methods of a few branches with the hope that they will
then know how to proceed in the other branches. This dis-
covery should not surprise us ; for, although the development
of knowledge is generically the same in all departments of study,
the individual features of the various studies require special
modifications in the methods of their development.

It is hoped that the plan of this treatise may commend
itself to the judgment of teachers.

(1) The nature of man, especially the psychical processes and
principles, is made the first subject of inquiry.

(2) The conclusion that education should consist of such de-
velopment of man's possibilities as best fit him for complete
living seems unavoidable.

(3) The essential features of this ideal development of man
are exhibited in the chapter on the nature of education, and a
synthesis of these views is found in the general principles of
education.

(4) The principles of culture, knowledge, and instruction
are deductions from the general principles of education, as
confirmed inductively by the history of education.

(5) The proposed methods of culture and instruction are
practical deductions confirmed by the experience of the best
teachers. Special attention is called to the proposed science-
method of instruction, i.e., the development of all branches by
observation, induction, and deduction, the ideal succession of
mental activities. It is believed that, all other things equal,

PREFACE 5

the teacher who catches the spirit of this method will work
the most intelligently and obtain the most satisfactory results.
The history of education in Germany, France, and parts of
America clearly confirms this conclusion.

For extensive treatment of the science of education the
reader is respectfully referred to such standard works on teach-
ing as Rosenkranz's " Philosophy of Education," and Tomp-
kins' " Philosophy of Teaching," to which this treatise is de-
signed to be a stepping stone, and with whose theories American
teachers are happily becoming better acquainted. Grateful
acknowledgment is here made to the various inspiring writers
consulted and quoted by the author.

This book is humbly dedicated to the teachers of our coun-
try, with the sincere hope that it may be of service to them
and their pupils, and to the cause of education in general.

Chaeles C. Boyee.

CONTENTS.

PAGB

Fkkface 5

PART I.
PSYCHOLOGY.

CHAPTER

I, Mental AcriviTy 12

II. Laws of Mental Activity 25

PART II.

PEINCIPLES OF TEACHING.

I. Natuee op Education : General Principles 33

11. Principles of Culture 41

III. Nature of Knowledge 46

IV. Principles op Knowledge 59

V. Principles op Instruction 67

PART III.

METHODS OF TEACHING.

I. Mental Culture 79

II. Objeot Lessons 89

III. Eeading 106

IV. Writing 181

V. Spelling 145

VI. Composition 169

VII. Grammar 204

VIII, Arithmetic 240

IX. Geography 282

X. History 310

7

8 CONTENTS

CHAPTEB PAGE

XI. Deawing 328

XII. Manual Training 347

XIII. Physiology 359

XIV. Physical Cultuke 363

XV. Singing 371

Reference Books for Collateral Reading 383

Index 389

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OF TEACHING.

PART I.
PSYCHOLOGY.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OF TEACHING.

INTRODUCTORY.

The theory of teaching, as we shall see, has to do with the
pupil's body as well as with the mind. Since our present
purpose forbids extended reference to physiology, it must be
taken for granted that the reader is familiar with that science.
Pedagogics, however, consists so largely of psychology, and
teachers are so generally in need of a compact restatement of
the fundamental truths of this science, that an introductory
reference to its method, as well as to the nature and laws of
mental activity, is indispensable in a treatise on teaching.
As a process psychology, like all other sciences, consists of
observation of phenomena and the ascertainment of their laws.
In other words, the student (1) observes his own mental ex-
periences or those of other minds, (2) grants for the time
being that these experiences are individuals of a genus, and
(3) tests the truth of such hypothesis by means of numerous
experiments in which the conditions are varied as much as pos-
sible. Though brief and compact by necessity, the following
chapters on the nature and laws of mental activity illustrate
the process of psychology and are considered necessary intro-
ductions to the present treatise. The student who will take
time to study these preparatory portions thoroughly should be
able to master the rest of the book with considerable ease.

11

12 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

CHAPTER I.

MENTAL ACTIVITY.

The phenomena with which the self-observing mind meets
are not a classified collection of distinct elements, but rather a
mass whose elements must be discovered by analysis. The
mass, as the self-observing mind discovers by analysis, con-
sists of a synthesis of distinct elements ; but the order in
which these elements become distinct depends, of course, on
the individual observer, the time of his observations, the pre-
dominance of some elements over others at the time of observa-
tion, etc. If, however, these elements became distinct to the
observer in their necessary order of dependence, as appears
from subsequent inquiry into the nature of these elements,
they would present themselves to the observer somewhat as
follows : (1) Sensation, (2) Ideation, (3) Relation and Emotion,
and (4) Volition.

I. INTELLECT.

The phenomena of sensation, ideation, and relation, as will
appear in the sequel, deserve our attention under the head of
Intellect.

Sensation. The observing mind discovers variations in its
phenomena corresponding to the variations in its physical en-
vironment. These variations, as physiological psychology
teaches, are the "affects" of "impresses" on the "end-organs"
of the "sensorium," and are termed Sensations. In other
words. Mental states arising from bodily stimuli, and through
the interpretation of which we get a knowledge of the world around
us, are termed Sensations.

Ideation. Mental "images" of the external or internal
" objects" for which mental data stand, are termed Ideas, and
the process of forming ideas is termed Ideation. The process,

MENTAL ACTIVITY 13

as further analysis will show, begins in sense-presentation ;
analysis and synthesis follow. In all phases of ideation the
mind only " posits" objects without dwelling on likeness, dif-
ference, necessity, etc. In other words, there is no " copula"
in ideation. The copula, as we shall see, forms "thoughts"
out of ideas. This distinction, since its description is so diffi-
cult, should be illustrated by means of logical "propositions,"
in which " ideation" and " copula" (relation) are respectively
the initial and final necessities. The various phases of idea-
tion, as already intimated, are as follows :

Pe7'ception. The mind observes repetition of sensations in
the repetition of external impresses, and thus learns to refer
sensations to such impacts as causes. In this way sensations
become "data" by means of which the mind identifies its
whereabouts in space and time. It is not only through the
special sense organs, as the eye or ear, that we obtain a knowl-
edge of physical environment, but also through all the other
species of sensation of which man is capable. The complex
phenomenon in question is termed Perception. In other words,
The interpretation of sensations is termed Perception. The
term is derived from the Latin words per, by means of, and
capio, I take hold of. The mental results thus obtained are
termed Percepts.

Memory. Sensations, and, as physiological psychology
teaches, all mental experiences, inasmuch as in the present
junction of body and mind they are inseparable from simul-
taneous sensations, leave association tracks or paths in the
neural apparatus. By means of these associations the mind
revives and recognizes its experiences. This complex phe-
nomenon is termed Memory ; the later " editions" of mental
experiences thus obtained are termed Memories. In other
words. The process of retaining, reviving, and recognizing
menial experiences is termed Memory. The tendency of defi-
nite and frequent associations to persist, is termed Habit, or

14 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Retention. Voluntary memory is termed Recollection. The
essential element of memory as mental phenomenon is Recog-
nition, i.e., the knowledge that what has come back is a later
edition of our own mental experiences.

Imagination. In perception the mind comes into actual con-
tact with realities ; in memory past realities are represented
with great fidelity. Since, as physiological psychology teaches,
the cortical tracts of perception and memory are the same, any
stimulation of these tracts, whether the origin of the stimulus
be within the mind itself or in the sensorium, will produce a
semblance either of perception or of memory. (1) The pri-
mary phase of imagination, as in illusions and dreams, resem-
bles perception and memory very closely. In the effort to
construct historical and fictitious events, etc., imagination be-
comes a mental substitute for perception. (2) In its second
phase, as in the mental projection of lines, and the construc-
tion of wholes, etc., imagination is mental emancipation from
the perception-lunits of space and time, and from the normal
correlation of parts, epochs, etc. Thus imagination becomes
a supplement of perception and the means of mental transi-
tion from the real to the possible, etc. (3) In the third phase
of imagination the mind, in obedience to the stimulus of ses-
thetic, moral, or philosophic abstractions, forms " new combi-
nations" out of materials furnished by perception and mem-
ory, but always in terms of perception, as in the conceptions
of artists, moralists, scientists, and inventors. The process in
question, in all its reproductive and productive, voluntary and
involuntary phases, is, as appears, really "representative,"
although as to its perfection the representation may vary from
the faintest resemblance to perception or memory to infinite
extensions. This process of apprehending possibilities sug-
gested by experienced realities is termed Imagination, from the
Latin word imago, copy or likeness. In short. The apprehen-
sion of possibilities as perceptions is termed Imagination.

MENTAL ACTIVITY 15

Abstraction. Qualities, as physiological psychology teaches,
first become the object of thought in perception and self-con-
sciousness. Our first ideas of brittleness, beauty, right, and
truth, for example, are formed in the perception or conscious-
ness of things that suggest these ideas to the mind. The ideas
thus formed are termed " concrete," from the fact that they
are formed without dissociating the qualities from the things
to which they belong. It is, however, possible to make quali-
ties the object of thought without reference to the things in
which they are found by perception and introspection. It
is thus that we may think of brittleness, beauty, right, and
truth, without reference to things which suggest these ideas to
the mind. The sesthetical, ethical, and philosophical distinc-
tions, i.e., those of beauty, morality, and truth, generally ap-
pear later and mature more slowly than the other distinctions
now under consideration. The mental process in question is
termed Abstraction, from the Latin words ahs, from, and traho,
I draw. In short, The process of making any quality an object
of thought is termed Abstraction. The peculiarities of several
of these abstract -distinctions, especially their distance from
the concrete, and their universality, led the " older" psycholo-
gists to classify them separately as "intuitions," from the
Latin words in, into, and tueor, I see. The " new" classifi-
cation simplifies matters without injustice to truth. The
power of sesthetic abstraction is termed Taste, and that of
moral abstraction is termed Conscience. The sesthetic and
moral distinctions, i.e., those of " beauty" and " right," gen-
erally appear somewhat later and mature more slowly than
other abstract distinctions.

Generalization. Our first ideas of things, as apples, horses,
government, etc., are percepts, as already shown. Two species
of synthesis follow : (1) The mind discovers that some of the
individuals of perception, memory, etc., have common proper-
ties. Apprehending these common properties in successive

16 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

abstractions, and synthesizing the successive impressions into
mental wholes, the mind forms object-concepts, as recorded in
common nouns. It is in this way that our idea of a house,
book, or bell, develops with our experience. (2) The mind
also discovers varieties of the same quality, as sweetness, in
otherwise dissimilar individuals, as sugar, apples, dispositions,
etc. Apprehending these varieties of the same quality in suc-
cessive abstractions, and synthesizing the successive impres-
sions into mental wholes, the mind forms quality-concepts,
as recorded in abstract nouns.

A collection of similar individuals (objects or qualities) is
termed a Genus. Object-concepts and quality-concepts, as
recorded respectively in common and abstract nouns, may
therefore be termed General Ideas, and the process of synthe-
sis in which they originate may be termed Generalization.
The great Herbart preferred the term Apperception, from
the belief that all concepts are derived from perception. In
short. The synthetic enlargement of ideas is termed Generaliza-
tion.

Consciousness. Of its own states and acts the mind is
aware somewhat in the same sense as the world without us ap-
pears to the senses. In the phenomenon in question the mind
becomes its own " object of thought," very much as a plant is
made an object of perception. This process of introspection
is termed Consciousness, from the Latin words con, at the
same time, and sdo, I know. Children, as experiments prove,
are for months only indefinitely conscious of the "self^ of
consciousness. It is only by and by that the child learns to
distinguish "self" sharply from "other." Ordinarily the
untutored adult observes his own states and acts as little as
the novice in botany observes the flowers at his feet. The
tutored mind not only knows that " self" is the " object of
thought" in consciousness, but observes its own acts and states
as the botanist observes flowers, i.e., critically, in order to

MENTAL ACTIVITY 17

ascertain properties and relations. Voluntary consciousness
is the primary source of information in the " mental" sciences.
(See the chapter on Knowledge.) Abstraction and generaliza-
tion follow consciousness very much in the same way as they
follow the process of perception. In short, The process of in-
trospection by which the mind becomes aware of its own states
and acts, is termed Consciousness.

Thought. The mental processes of which the various
species of " sentences" are expressions, are evidently arrange-
ments of ideas rather than formations of ideas. The mental
activity in question resolves itself into two species.

Judgment. In the act of judgment, as expressed in a logi-
cal proposition, the mind passes from one object of thought to
another to ascertain their agreement or disagreement, as when
we estimate length, weight, worth, etc. The process is often
termed Direct Comparison. It is termed " direct" comparison
because in the act of judgment only two objects of thought are
in question. The term "comparison" is derived from the
Latin words con, with, and par, equal. Accordingly, The
process of comparing objects of thought, and. thus deciding as to
their agreement or disagreement, is termed Judgment.

As soon as, in the course of our comparisons, we find a
number of similar individuals we group them on the ground
of such similarity. Sorting books, plants, insects, actions, etc.,
illustrates the process, which, whether it be only mental or also
physical, is termed Classification. In " common" classification
physical properties are the bases of judgment, as in the arrange-
ment of books in a library ; in " scientific" classification the
relations ascertained by complete induction are the bases of
judgment, as in Natural History. In short. The process of
grouping individuals on grounds of resemblance, is termed Clas-
sification. (1) Progressive classification, i.e., the formation of
groups of individuals, as in addition, multiplication, and the
constructing of a sentence, is termed Synthesis, from the Greek

2

18 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

words syn, together, and tithemi, I put. (2) Regressive classifi-
cation, i.e., the isolation of individuals that compose a class,
whole, or genus, as in subtraction, division, and the separating
of a sentence into its component parts, is termed Analysis, from
the Greek words ana, up, and luo, I break.

Reasoning. The formation of judgments, i.e., the process of
relating ideas, is termed Thinking, or Thought. " Thoughts"
may in turn become the " object of thought," i.e., the process of
relating ideas may be indirect as well as direct. This process
of thinking is termed Reasoning. In short, The process of re-
lating thoughts and drawing a conclusion from such relation is
termed Reasoning. There are two species of Reasoning.

(1) The process of reasoning from a particular judgment,
i.e., a judgment concerning individuals, to a general judg-
ment, i.e., a judgment concerning a genus, is termed Induction.
The following combination of thoughts illustrates induction :
The sum of the angles of this triangle is two right angles ; the
same thing is true of all observed triangles ; therefore, the sum
of the angles of any triangle is two right angles.

(2) The process of reasoning from a general to a particular
judgment is termed Deduction. The following combination
of judgments illustrates deduction : The sum of the angles of
any triangle is two right angles ; abo is a triangle ; therefore,
the sum of its angles is two right angles.

The common idea of two associated judgments is known in
logic as the " middle" term. The M^ord triangle in the first
two judgments of the above illustrations names the middle
term, and is itself often called by that name. Two judgments
that have a " middle term" are known as " related" judgments,
as in the illustrations. Two judgments so related that a third
judgment grows out of their relation, are termed Premises,
from the Latin words pre, before, and mitto, I send. (See the
illustrations.) The consequence of the relation of two judgments
is termed the Conclusion, from the Latin words con, together,

MENTAL ACTIVITY 19

and cludo, I close, (See illustrations.) The derivation of a
judgment from the relation of two judgments, is termed Syl-
logism, from the Greek word syn, together, and logizomai, I
reckon. (See illustrations.)

The term " uuderstanding" is commonly applied to the
" thought" processes in question. Thought, or understanding,
as psychology teaches, is always fundamental in ideation. In
the broadest sense, any process of forming ideas or thoughts,
whether the mind thus arrives at " knowledge," or ^' truth,"
i.e., ideas and thoughts which are true, or only at " opinion,"
i.e., ideas and thoughts which may or may not be true, is
termed Thinking. If the mind thus arrives at knowledge,
the process is termed Knowing. The mind's power of think-
ing and knowing is termed Intellect.

II. SENSIBILITY.

The consequences (see Total Reaction, next chapter) of in-
tellectual activity, are states and moods of mental pleasure or
pain. These mental states and moods are termed Feelings, or
Sensibilities, or Emotions, and the function of mental feeling is
termed Semihility, or Emotion. The feelings are significantly
termed Emotions, from the Latin words e, out, and moveo, I
move, because, whether simple or complex, they tend to re-
veal themselves in the face, eyes, and carriage of the person
affected.

Simple Emotions. There is a species of mental pleasure
or pain, commonly termed gladness or sadness, in which the
emotion is not an attitude, or trend, toward the causes of the
pleasure or pain, but simply a state, or condition, to which the
person affected has been moved by sensation, ideas, or thoughts.
This species of mental feeling is therefore said to be Subjective
rather than Objective, i.e.. Simple in its reference to " self"
rather than to others. Accordingly, Feelings that are not atti-
tudes, but only states, are termed Simple Emotions. Or, Feel-

20 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

ings that are only states of mental pleasure or pain, and not
also attitudes, or dispositions, toward the causes of the mental
pleasure or pain, are termed Simple Emotions. " Cheerful-
ness," "good mood," "melancholy," "mental distemper," —
these are the familiar descriptions of simple emotions.

Affections. That which gives pleasure, or that which has
worth, or that which has come intimately into our life, readily
becomes an object of endearment, or sympathy, or respect, or
esteem. When something has thus become " dear" to us the
feeling is termed Love. Friendship, gratitude, patriotism, and
piety, are familiar species of Love. The absence, as well as
the opposite, of love, is technically termed Hate. Ingratitude,
heartlessness, and impiety, are familiar species of hate.

In simple emotion there is no object upon which the feeling
centres ; but in love and hate there is always an object. If
the object is "self," the emotional attitude is termed Egoistic;
if the object is "another," the attitude is termed Altruistic.
In other words, love and hate are dispositions toward, or rela-
tions to, some person or thing, be it self or other, and they
are significantly termed Affections, from the Latin words ad,
toward, and fectio, disposition. Accordingly, Feelings that
are not only states of mental pleasure or pain, but also atti-
tudes of approbation or disapprobation toward the causes of
the pleasure or pain, are termed Affections. Or, Feelings that
are not only states, but also attitudes of approbation or disappro-
bation, are termed Affections.

Desires. Pleasure, sympathy, respect, esteem, etc., often
become longings, or demands, to possess or enjoy that which
gives pleasure, or appears to deserve respect, or esteem. If
tliat which the " heart" demands is at a distance, or difficult
to attain, the demand may become intense suffering, as in the
case of thirst or personal attachments. When this intense
feeling becomes " master" it is termed Passion, as in the case
of ambition and avarice.

MENTAL ACTIVITY 21

The feelings now under consideration do not only centre
upon an object, but they also insist on possessing and enjoying
that object. This insistence, egoistic or altruistic, to possess
and enjoy that which we long to possess and enjoy, is denoted,
for want of a better word, by the term Attractive, in the sense
of a demand. These feelings of longing, or demand, are there-
fore not only objective, but also attractive.

To all species of emotional demand, positive and negative,
the term Dedre has been applied. Accordingly, Feelings
that are not only attitudes, but also demands, are termed
Desires. Or, Feelings that are not only attitudes of appro-
bation or disapprobation toward the causes of the mental
pleasure or pain, but also requests to possess the causes of
pleasure, or to escape the causes of pain, are termed Desires.
Avarice, ambition, revenge, etc., are familiar species of De-
sire. Desires whose objects, as food or stimulants, are de-
manded for physical gratification, are termed Appetites ; those
whose objects, as knowledge or power, are demanded for
mental gratification, are termed Sentiments. The desire "to
know" is termed Interest, or Curiosity. (Interest is often an
affection.)

Expectations. Faith in the possibility of attaining that
which is desired, is termed Expectancy. The union of ex-
pectancy and the longing to possess that which is deemed
capable of giving pleasure, is termed Hope. Deprived of
this expectancy, Hope becomes Despair. In other words.
Desire deprived of expectancy is termed Despair. The
union of expectancy and the longing to escape that which is
deemed capable of giving pain, is termed Fear. Fear ceases,
or else becomes Hope, when expectancy is removed. Thus
it appears that hope and fear have the common element of
expectancy. Accordingly, Desires coupled with faith in their
attainment, are termed Expectations.

The manifestations of sensibility are Simple Emotions,

22 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Affections, Desires, and that modification of Desires termed

Expectations.

III. WILL.

We attempt to determine our " trend," whether it be of
mind or body. In this attempt we assume our power to be
our own master and sovereign. Within definable limits this
assumption is correct, as experience goes to show. In other
words, we can "govern" ourselves, as well as think and feel.
The ability to govern ourselves, however limited the domain
may prove to be, is termed Will, and any exercise of this ability
is termed Willing, or Volition.

Motives. Possible courses of activity come to our view as
cross-roads do on a journey. There is such a thing as mental
pause, and it resembles the traveller's halting at the cross-
roads. In this time of mental poise we compare the merits,
real or supposed, of the alternatives in view, as, for example,
when we try to " make up" our mind on some point of duty.
The considerations that influence this mental struggle, as in
temptation, may be either intellectual or emotional, as in a
case of conscience and passion. There may be either harmony
or opposition of intellect and sensibility, as in obedience to
law. The influences in this mental poise, whether they be in-
tellectual or emotional, are termed Motives, from the Latin
word moveo, I move. The mental struggle with motives may
be very great ; but normally it it possible to resist any motive,
and to act in opposition to it. This possibility distinguishes
motives from causes, and justifies the pause to which we resort.
Accordingly, The influences that enter, but do not irresistibly
determine a voluntary struggle, are termed Motives.

Decision. The struggle with motives generally terminates
in the voluntary selection of some alternative. This selection
is termed a Decision, or Choice. Accordingly, The voluntary
selection of an altei^native after comparing it with others, is
termed Decision. If there be only two alternatives, i.e., if the

MENTAL ACTIVITY 23

choice be limited to the selection and refusal of a course, the
selection is termed Fiat, and the refusal, Neget In other
words, Fiat is positive, and Neget, negative Decision.

Intention. The alternative selected may be something dis-
tant in time or attainment, as political preferment. Such a
selection is termed Intention. Accordingly, The voluntary se-
lection of an alternative vjhose attainment is prospective, is termed
Intention. It is in this sense that we intend to be graduates,
or to become what we have not yet become. Vigorous inten-
tion is termed Purpose, and undeviating, invincible purpose,
is termed Resolution. It is in the latter sense that we resolve
to be successful, whatever it may cost, and however exhaust-
ing the struggle may prove.

Attention. In a limited way it is possible to control our
mental activity, i.e., to determine its course, its steadiness, and
its continuance on the same track. In other words, we can,
under normal conditions, determine our mental trend at any
conscious moment of time. This exercise of voluntary power
is of several species. (1) It may be a submission, more or
less unflagging, to the demands of another will, as in listening
or reading. (2) It may be devotion, more or less undeviating,
to one interest or task, as in study or play. (3) It may be a
transitive decision in thinking, as in the dismission of one
thought in order to admit or continue another, as in passing
from one study to another. The phenomena just described are
termed Attention, from the Latin words ad, toward, and tendo,
I stretch. Accordingly, Continuity of thought in one groove,
especially voluntary continuity, is termed Attention. Or, the
voluntary process of keeping the mind at work on one thing
rather than on others, is termed Attention. Or, Thinking of
one alternative rather than of others, is termed Attention.

Motives are present in voluntary activity, but voluntary
activity itself assumes the phases of decision, intention, and
attention.

24 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Conclusion. The purpose of the present chapter has been
to observe, classify, and define mental phenomena. We have
thus arrived at the conclusion that thinking, feeling, and will-
ing, are the possible mental phenomena, and that there are no
other species.

Mind. It must be evident enough to any one who observes
himself in the concrete, that thinking, feeling, and willing, are
not physical phenomena, i.e., phenomena of matter. In other
words, it is not our body that thinks, feels, and wills ; it is our
" self," the mind, or soul, or spirit. Though it be in most
intimate junction with the body in which it dwells, the mind
is not the " function" of the body, but a distinct entity that
itself has functions. This assumption implies several attri-
butes of mind, (1) If mind is not matter, it is spirit. (2)
If mind is not matter, it is indivisible, or simple. (3) If
mind is not matter, it cannot lose its numerical identity. (4)
If mind is not a function, it is an entity. Accordingly, TJie
simple, spiritual entity which thinks, feels, and wills, is termed
Mind.

Psychology. To study mind in order to deal with it, is
the indispensable prerequisite in pedagogy. (See the method,
beginning of this chapter.) The problems are numerous.
The first problem is, to observe the mental phenomena, and to
ascertain their laws. This science is termed Psychology, from
the Greek words psyche, soul, and logos, discourse. Accord-
ingly, The observation of mental phenomena, and the ascertain-
ment of their laws, is termed Psychology.

LAWS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 25

CHAPTER 11.

LAWS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY.

Mental activity, as experiments prove, is subject to laws,
a knowledge of which is essential to pedagogics.

Interaction. (I.) The activities of which the mind is capa-
ble, as psychology teaches, are sensation, ideation, relation, emo-
tion, and volition. The various modes of ideation, as shown in
the preceding chapter, are perception, consciousness, abstrac-
tion, and generalization. Memory is essential to all processes
of ideation, and imagination is a mode of ideation in which
the mind transforms and transcends its percepts, memories,
concepts, etc. The two modes of relation are direct and in-
direct judgment.

In psychology we isolate these activities as if they were in-
dependent individuals; they are, however, really a constant
complex of complements, i.e., they always either imply or
solicit each other as phases of one entirety. Any disturbance
in this interaction, as may be seen in abnormal mental action,
interferes with the perfection of the entirety. In short, inter-
action is a law of mental activity.

Summation of Stimuli. (II.) The hardest sleeper awakes
when the amount of stimulus is sufficiently increased. Who-
ever knows how to add influences up to a certain amount can
win the attention of the most indifferent person. A multipli-
cation of " cues" enables us at last to come upon a forgotten
name. A greater number of incentives or a stronger motive
finally overcomes emotional or voluntary opposition. Ever
cumulating considerations at last conquer the most sullen sin-
ner and win him for God. Indeed, character and conduct
seem to be nothing other than rational or emotional sequences

26 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

of such summation of stimuli. In other words, mental activity
is subject to summation of stimuli.

Neurosis. (III.) Since perception is simply the interpreta-
tion of sensations, neurosis, i.e., neural activity, must be the
physical basis. Neurosis, as physiological psychology teaches,
is the indispensable condition of consciousness. The physical
basis of memory, as already shown, is neurosis. Recent ex-
periments prove that illusion and hallucination can be brought
about by drugs and electrical stimulation of the sensory tracts.
This means that the nerve-tracts of perception are also the
tracts of imagination. The fatigue that follows severe mental
application, however abstract the thinking may be, is sufficient
proof that neurosis accompanies the higher intellectual processes.
All species of emotion, whether simple or complex, are attended
by neurosis, as palpitation of the heart, pallor, trembling limbs,
etc., clearly show. Volition is communicated to executive or-
ganisms through neurosis. To be brief, in the present junc-
tion of body and mind, neurosis accompanies psychosis, i.e.,
mental activity.

Sensation. (IV.) In many cases of weak sensation, per-
ception is correspondingly uncertain. When, for example, the
sensations of sound or light are weak, the perception is com-
monly faulty and incomplete. The same thing is true of
odors, flavors, aches, etc. When, however, the sensation be-
comes more intense and definite, the full meaning becomes
evident. The direct variation in the proportion in question
continues up to a point when, as in the case of violent pain,
perception is either partial or impossible. We infer from
these facts that, ivithin certain limits sensation and perception
are directly proportionate. This law of interaction harmonizes
with the law of summation of stimuli.

Consciousness. (V.) We hardly feel the ring that is al-
ways on our finger. We are hardly conscious of customary
muscular sensations. The consciousness of sensations from

LAWS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 27

the special senses varies with the varying definiteness of these
sensations. The consciousness of sensations of heat or cold,
hunger or thirst, increases from extreme vagueness to extreme
definiteness. There is, however, a limit to this direct propor-
tion ; when sensations, as physical pain, become extremely in-
tense, consciousness breaks down completely. The inference
follows that, within certain limits sensation and conseiousness are
directly proportionate. This law of interaction also harmonizes
with the law of summation of stimuli.

Memory. (VI.) Memory, as physiological psychology
teaches, is psychosis by means of neurosis. In this inter-
action the body and mind, as experience shows, are mutual
elements. In other words, memory is affected by fatigue, ill-
ness, age, interest, exercise, and such mental reinforcements as
imagination, judgment, etc. The quantity and quality of these
various influences that enter into the formation of memory-
associations determines the quantity and quality of memory-
reproductions. In short. The character of memory-formations
determines the character of the 7'eproductions. This interaction
is therefore also subject to the law of summation of stimuli.

Imagination. (VII.) Distress in the vital organs pro-
vokes dreams, suggests illusions, etc. Latent disease influ-
ences our waking and sleeping world. Physical habits have
their counterparts in imagination. Mental experiences, and
habits of thought, give direction and impulse to imagination.
The imagination of the optimist is a beautiful world, while
that of the pessimist is often a desert or a hell. Thus it ap-
pears that in these various interactions imagination, like per-
ception and memory, is subject to the law of the summation
of stimuli. In short. The trend of imagination depends upon
physical and mental suggestions.

Abstraction. (VIII.) The powers of imagination defy
description, and yet this function, too, has its absolute limits.
It is impossible to escape the ideas of space and time in the

28 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

operations of imagmation. So, too, the ideas of number, iden-
tity, cause, truth, beauty, and right, are always present, some
or all of them, in the operations of imagination. Dreams, for
example, abound in fictitious recognitions (identities), units
and combinations (number), causes and effects. Illusion is
apparent truth, and as such conforms with the conditions of
truth. The conceptions of Art arise from the idea of beauty,
and even dreams do not wholly deny conscience. In other
words. The utmost limits of abstraction are also the limits of
imagination. This interaction, like those already considered,
is therefore subject to the law of the summation of stimuli.

Identity. (IX.) Direct judgment, as psychology shows,
presupposes the idea of identity, i.e., the distinction denoted
by the words agreement and disagreement. The same thing
is true of indirect judgment, or reasoning, as any one can
prove for himself. This idea underlies all species of general-
ization and classification, as when we assert that a Rose must
either be or not be a plant, but that it cannot both be and not
be a plant. The second premise of the inductive syllogism
rests entirely on the belief that Nature reveals its genera in its
individuals. This idea of " uniformity" is the abstraction of
identity. Even in aesthetic and moral judgments, where the
concrete is compared directly or indirectly with the abstract,
i.e., the real with the ideal, the idea of identity is present in
the same indispensable way. In logic the idea in question is
analyzed into the axioms of thought. In short, The abstract
distinction of identity is indispensable to direct and indirect
judgment. This intellectual interaction, like others, therefore
harmonizes with the law of summation of stimuli.

Total Interaction. (X.) Emotion, as psychology teaches,
presupposes ideas or thoughts, as when we think of suffering
friends and desire to alleviate these sufferings. The ideas of
utility, beauty, truth, and duty, seem to be the most potent to
awaken feeling. Volition, as psychology also teaches, pre-

LAWS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 29

supposes emotion, as when love prompts deeds of love. Just
as the ideas of utility, beauty, etc., powerfully awaken feel-
ing, so the feelings of utility, beauty, etc., powerfully solicit
volition. Thus ideas and thoughts tend to become deeds. In
short, Tliinhing, feeling, and willing, form a natural series
of mental activity. This interaction of the intellect, sensi-
bility, and will, constitutes the highest summation known to
psychology and life.

Stages of Development. (XI.) The natural order of
development, as inquiry tends to prove, consists of a series of
upheavals. In this series perception, memory, imagination,
judgment (including abstraction, generalization, and reason-
ing), and consciousness, seem to be the intellectual stages,
while emotion and volition struggle with each other for
supremacy along a line of instinctive upheavals and environ-
mental suggestions. The series in question is, however, as
biology, etc., teaches, a " broken" line of development. In
early life, as Lukens, Ricci, and other scientists teach us,
blind instincts and individual impulses tend to substitute
themselves for the logical order of adult thinking. Sur-
prising and apparently evil tendencies break the line of the
child's progress toward matm-ity. Intellectual and moral
aptitudes apparently safe from relapse suffer " suspended ani-
mation." A period of physical and mental "pause," prob-
ably for preparation, as Dr. Ellis shows, precedes the mighty
adolescent upheaval, which, as Dr. Stanley Hall and. others
show, is probably the great birthday of maturity. Each new
tendency comes into the series of upheavals as a " monopoly,"
and the " rate of growth" in different aptitudes is quite vari-
able, as those who observe children cannot help seeing. Amid
these irregularities of development, however, the series of
monopolies, or concentrations, in tendencies and aptitudes is
fairly constant, and may be regarded as a law. In short.
The mind matures by stages.

30 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Limits of Development. (XII.) The most surprising
variations, as in size and quality of skeleton, muscles, brains,
etc., appear in the physical endowments of man. The differ-
ences in mental possibilities, as statistics plainly show, are
even greater. The genius, for example, surpasses common
minds just as much as the total possibilities of the adult ex-
ceed those of the infant. The difference between the " child-
hood of the race" and its present maturity, is probably the
most surprising thing in science. In spite of these variations,
however, the " specific identity" of the race has remained in-
tact for all epochs of human history. In short. The maturing
mind encounters limits in specifie constitution.

PART II.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING.

SI

THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 33

CHAPTER I.

THE NATURE OF EDUCATION.

The general features of education are conveniently treated
under two heads : (1) The Nature of Man, and (2) The Nature
of Education.

A. THE NATURE OF MAN.

The ends in view in education, as we shall see, make a
knowledge of the nature of man absolutely indispensable.
Two points deserve our special attention : (1) Man's Capacity
for Improvement, and (2) The Species of Man's Capacity for
Improvement.

Capacity. The statistics of history, biology, etc., prove
that man is capable of improvement, or culture, in strength
and habit.

Strength. (1) Systematic labor, normal in quantity and
quality, promotes physical strength, as every one who has
thought about the matter knows. The results of athletic
sports and physical culture confirm these views. (2) Per-
sistent mental exercise, normal in quantity and quality,
strengthens the mental functions, as statistics abundantly
prove in the case of sound mmds. And much can be done
in this respect even for " defectives," as the history of institu-
tions for the deaf, dumb, blind, etc., shows.

Habits. The things in which we exercise ourselves physi-
cally or mentally become, in a sense, possessions, which are
known as Habits, from the Latin word habeo, I possess, or
have. Thus, for example, walking and reading, become
habits. Among the conspicuous features of "habit" are the
" ease" and " speed" with which we can by and by do things
which at first were difficult and awkward. Habits continually

3

34 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

acquire " momentum/' and this feature in connection with its
reflex "periodicity," makes the formation of habits at the
same time the most hopeful and the most dangerous possi-
bility of education. The intimate interaction of sensation and
emotion generally converts habit into "taste," or emotional
trend, which by reflex action reinforces habit. The conver-
sion of habit into taste is promoted by the discovery of one's
" skill" in things which become habit.

Species of Ca-pacity. As indicated, man's capacity for
improvement in strength and habits is a twofold capacity, —
that of body and that of mind.

Physical Capacity. Within the limits of specific constitu-
tion, as statistics show, the human body is capable of amazing
increase in strength, executive ease and speed, and artistic
skill. The achievements of athletes, manufacturers, and artists,
are familiar illustrations.

Mental Capacity. Within the limits of specific constitu-
tion, as history shows, our mental possibilities are sublime.
(1) Through intellectual apprehension of truth, utility, beauty,
duty, and Deity, man becomes a scientist, inventor, artist,
moralist, and religionist. (2) Emotion solicits volition (see
tenth law of mental activity), and thus converts theory into
practice. (3) The possibilities of volition, as consciousness
and history seem to affirm, are coordinate with our intellec-
tual possibilities. In the midst of the realizations of modern
history, the mind turns instinctively toward the attainment
of ideals as yet only imperfectly realized.

B. THE NATURE OP EDUCATION.

The general character of the attainment of our possibilities
is conveniently treated under the following heads : (1) Self-
activity, (2) System, (3) Emancipation, (4) The Pupil's Limits,
(5) The Ideal in Education, and (6) The Definition of Educa-
tion.

THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 35

Self-Activity. Conscious eifort in the evolution of possi-
bilities is termed Self-activity. Self-activity therefore pre-
supposes consciousness, ideals, i.e., abstract conceptions of pos-
sibilities, and will. Man, as psychology teaches, is such a self-
active agent. Man's capacity for self- activity, as we must
infer from the eleventh law of mental activity, is at the same
time both the guarantee and the general necessity in the evo-
lution of his possibilities, i.e., in his " education." According
to the eleventh law of mental activity, " play," i.e., instinctive
activity, and " work," i.e., voluntary activity, are the succes-
sive phases of self-activity.

Play. Froebel observed that play is the activity of func-
tions instinctively clamoring for exercise, and that we cannot
give a satisfactory account of such activity unless it be Nature's
provision for the earlier development of the functions of body
and soul. The Kindergarten is simply systematic play from
which caprice is gradually eliminated. Inasmuch as play is
the manifestation of aptitudes, it becomes the educational key
to the child's talent and destiny.

Work. Absolute abandonment to spontaneous and self-
satisfying activity, i.e., play, would in time develop into mon-
strous caprice and arbitrariness. In that event the aging in-
dividual would not mature into the powers, habits, tastes, and
wisdom needed for highest happiness, character, and life.
Therefore the child must gradually overcome his caprices and
develop the power of useful and moral self-subordination. In
this obedience to imperatives of utility, necessity, or duty, the
pupil is no longer a creature of impulse, but a conscious and
intentional agent in his own destiny. In short, I. Self-activity
is the basis of education.

Supervision. The immaturity of the child (see the elev-
enth law of mental activity) makes authoritative supervision
over the pupil's activity an absolute educational necessity.
This necessary system of authoritative supervision over pupils

36 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

is termed " Teaching." The teacher's work consists of three
things (1) Adaptation of Tasks, (2) Stimulation, and (3) Di-
rection.

Adaptation of Tasks. (1) In consequence of the j)upil's
relative weakness (see the eleventh law of mental activity),
the pupil's tasks must be adapted to stages of development.
The stages of physical, instinctive, acquisitive, and productive
" monopoly,'^ must be respected in the pupil. (2) The pupil's
tasks must also be adapted to some extent to special tastes and
talents, since these are generally correlatives, and in the main
constitute the pupil's individuality, God's creative impress,
and man's inalienable guarantee of success in something or
other.

Stimulation. In consequence of tardiness and inhibitions in
the appearance of aptitudes, the pupil needs a stimulus to self-
activity. The "concrete," as statistics show, is the most
effective stimulus in earlier, and the " abstract" in later years.
Ignorance in these matters incapacitates the teacher.

Direction. In addition to stimulus, the pupil needs a
teacher's direction. (1) The ordinary pupil wastes his ener-
gies and loses his way. In conflict with difficulties, the pupil
needs suggestions, hints, illustrations, questions, etc. (2) In
the crises along the broken line of his development (see the
eleventh law of mental activity), the pupil needs special
supervision, and sympathetic support. The greatest perils
and at the same time the greatest opportunities belong to the
Kindergarten epoch, to the period of pause before adolescence,
and to the adolescent upheaval. (3) Among the most impor-
tant things to the pupil's welfare is effective interaction of
body and mind. (See the second and third laws of mental
activity.) It therefore devolves on the teacher to combine
the best physical conditions with the pupil's mental tasks.
Accordingly, II. Authoritative supervision is the necessary sup-
plement of the pupil's self -activity.

THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 37

Emancipation. The trend of the child's natural develop-
ment (see the eleventh law of mental activity) and practical
necessity, suggest and require gradual release from the teacher's
authority. It is along this line that teachers are likely to
make the most irreparable mistakes.

(1) For a time the old bird feeds and tends and guards her
young with utmost attentiveness. By and by, however, the
little proteges, being " fall-fledged," are made to shift for
themselves, and their tutelage ends.

(2) So, too, there comes a time when boys and girls attain
to their "majority," and are said to be "of age." Until then
they remain the proteges of others, their tutelage being pre-
paratory. Thenceforward they are to shift for themselves,
and, taking their place among equals, to work out a worthy
destiny in their own way. They may, and will, if they be
wise, still value and even seek the counsel of others, but need
not abide by it from necessity. They may, if they see fit, sub-
mit to authority from without, but cannot strictly, as hitherto,
be required to do so.

(3) The transition here described is the one toward which
true education must tend, and for which it must prepare.
Otherwise it fails to connect " School" with " Life," and, to
that serious extent, fails in its function. It is, however, only
when boys and girls can really be expected to help themselves
and to govern themselves that they should attain to freedom
from necessary subjection to others. Assuming that they can
help themselves and govern themselves, the world thencefor-
ward holds them accountable. They should not be liberated too
soon, lest they go astray, nor too suddenly, lest they be unable
to preserve their balance, nor too late, lest it be impossible for
them ever to stand alone. Their happiness, virtue, and suc-
cess, are at stake. Accordingly, III. Gradual release from
authoritative supervision must prepare the pupil for self-super'
vision.

38 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Limitations. (1) The oak exists in smaller proportions in
the acorn, and is nothing other than that for which provision
had been made in the acorn. So, too, it is impossible to de-
velop powers, habits, tastes, or wisdom, for which the Creator
has not made provision in the original constitution of a man
(eleventh law). (2) Many cannot attain to those powers,
habits, tastes, and wisdom, for which provision was made in
their original constitution, for several reasons, (a) their health
does not allow it ; (b) their leisure is limited by poverty, busi-
ness, or some one's adverse control; and (c) their environ-
ment for too long a period of years does not inspire and
prompt to those efforts which, as suggested by the eleventh
law of mental activity, are essential to the pupil's progress.
(3) Others cannot attain to the best results in education, be-
cause they become the proteges of supervisors and governors
who do not understand their function, or, understanding it,
fail to mind their business. Accordingly, IV. I'he pupil's
limitations should be removed as much as possible.

The Ideal in Education. (1) The perfection of our Crea-
tor's character ; the immortality of essential humanity ; and
human capacity for happiness, are assumptions justified by
reason and experience. The capacity for happiness, moreover,
is a persistent endowment of the human race. Thinking of
this endowment in connection with the perfect character of our
Maker, we cannot avoid the conclusion that man is meant for
ultimate happiness. This destiny of happiness, however, is con-
ditional, i.e., there must be adequate preparation for it in Time.
Accordingly, ultimate happiness is to be an ideal (purpose) of
humanity. (Eleventh and twelfth laws of mental activity.)

(2) The universal distinction of right and wrong, in con-
nection with ability to will the right and wrong ; the promo-
tion of virtue and duty by Christianity; the responsibility of
human beings to their Maker and to each other ; and the re-
quirement of virtue for real happiness, are assumptions justi-

THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 39

fied by reason and experience. These assumptions lead to the
unavoidable conclusion that man is meant for a moral destiny.
Accordingly, virtue is to be an ideal of humanity. (Elev-
enth and twelfth laws of mental activity.)

(3) Eeason and experience justify the following additional
assumptions : (a) The present powers of man are such as to
fit him for " complete living" in Time, i.e., man is so con-
stituted a junction of body and spirit as to make " human
affairs" a possibility, a pleasure, a duty, or even a necessity ;
(6) the realization of this temporal destiny is conditional,
i.e., it depends on adequate accommodation to the environ-
ment of this life as well as on efficient use of this environ-
ment. Thinking of human constitution and its fitness in tem-
poral environment, we come to the unavoidable conclusion
that man is meant also for a destiny in which the great prob-
lems are those of livelihood, home, education, government,
and so forth, i.e., a temporal destiny. Accordingly, "com-
plete living" in Time is to be an ideal of humanity. (Elev-
enth and twelfth laws of mental activity.)

Thus it follows that there are three great ends (goals) of
life, three ideals (purposes) of humanity. But education is es-
sentially progression toward these ideals (hopes) of humanity.
Accordingly, V. The ultimate objects of education are happi-
ness, virtue, and " complete equipment^ ^ for life.

Definition of Education. From the foregoing considera-
tions, based almost wholly on the laws of mental activity, and
especially on the eleventh and twelfth laws, we can construct
an inductive definition of education. Thus, VI. The realiza-
tion of man's possibilities, through systematized self-activity, for
complete living, is termed, Education. The term is derived from
the Latin words e, out, and duco, I lead, and thus refers us to
the fundamental fact in education, namely, that exercise, or
self-activity, promotes development. It serves our pedagogic
purposes to consider the species of education.

40 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Species of Education. The number of man's powers and
the ends to be kept in view in the cultivation of these powers,
determine the possible species of education.

(1) Physical education has to do with the body, and aims to
make it a fit abode and instrument of the spirit. As a means
to these ends a training in physiology and physical culture are
indispensable.

(2) Intellectual education has to do with the thinking and
knowing powers of the mind, and aims to develop these pow-
ers into fit instruments of life. As a means to this end, both
general and special courses of study are necessary.

(3) Moral education has to do with character-building. As
a means to this end the pupil's will must be subordinated to the
ideas of utility, beauty, duty, and religion. The correspond-
ing subordinate species of moral education are termed practi-
cal, aesthetic,, social, and religious. The most effective stim-
lus in moral education is religion, Avhich consists of faith in
God, love to God and man, and obedience to God. All species
of moral education begin in the intellect, and the correspond-
ing emotions thus waked up solicit the will. As means to the
ends of moral education the pupil needs a training in the use-
ful arts and sciences, in the fine arts, and in personal, social,
and religious virtues.

PEINCIPLES OF CULTURE 41

CHAPTER II.

PRINCIPLES OF CULTURE.

It is possible, as experiments prove, to promote the develop-
ment of which the pupil is capable. In other words, activi-
ties can be quickened, strength increased, habits and tastes
improved, and knowledge matured. In this work the teacher
must conform with certain laws, to which, as history, anthro-
pology, and biology teach us, the pupil's natural development
is subject. The general truths in question are termed Prin-
ciples of Culture.

Exercise. I. Exercise increases the activity of the pianist's
fingers and the strength of the blacksmith's arm. Habits are
formed by exercise in that which is to become habit. Habits
generally become tastes. Thus, within tlie limits of design, as
expressed in our constitution, exercise tends to promote devel-
opment. The remarkable thing about this law of exercise is
its generality, i.e., its exceptions are very few when the exercise
is normal in quality, quantity, and time. Nevertheless, this
law of exercise, as biology teaches, has limitations. Swal-
lows kept caged until after their usual time for learning to
fly, and then released, fly readily. The feats are the devel-
oped results of forces which "ripen internally at approxi-
mately definite times." Genius, like the powers of the swal-
low's wings, tends to ripen somewhat independent of exercise.
The indications are that many aptitudes of body and mind, in-
cluding instincts and appetites, ripen at approximately definite
times as the result of special endowment and hereditary mo-
mentum. But these facts do not invalidate the law in ques-
tion, since exercise generally, perhaps always, promotes apti-

42 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

tudes and tendencies which appear in this way. In short,
exercise promotes development.

Correlation. II. The interactions required by the law
of summation, as stated in the laws of mental activity, are
evidently the primary requirement of mental exercise. In
short, it is an advantage to each mental faculty to be exercised
in its natural connection iviih the rest. This general require-
ment resolves itself into the following special requirements.

Perception. Definiteness of sensation, according to the
fourth law of mental activity, is the primary requirement in
the development of perception. Obedience to this require-
ment will stimulate interest and therefore quicken activity.
The ideal ends in view, i.e., activity, reliability, and interest,
are thus attained.

Consciousness. Voluntary self-observation, according to
the fifth law of mental activity, is the primary requirement in
the development of consciousness. Obedience to this require-
ment will enable the pupil in due time to make "self" an
" object of thought," just as the external world is his object of
perception. The ideal ends in view, i.e., the power and habit
of introspection, are thus developed.

Memory. Effective interaction of body and mind, accord-
ing to the sixth law of mental activity, is the primary re-
quirement in the cultivation of memory. In other words, the
desired quantity and quality of memory-reproductions can be
secured only by such reinforcements in memory-associations
as physical vigor, interest and attention, frequent repetition,
logical suggestions, imagination, etc. Obedience to these re-
quirements will result in definite, persistent, and suggestive
association tracts. The ideal ends in view, i.e., economic
memory-associations and reliable memory-reproductions, will
be thus attained.

Imagination. Physical and mental suggestion, according to
the seventh and eighth laws of mental activity, is the special

phttnciples of culture 43

requirement in the cultivation of the imagination. In other
words, sensation, perception, and memory, must be made effi-
cient furnishing agents in the structures of imagination, while
exercise in the ideas of space, time, beauty, duty, and truth,
will serve as mighty stimuli. The understanding, too, should
be called into the service of imagination. Obedience to these
requirements will strengthen and purify imagination. The
ideal ends in view, i.e., service to art, literature, science, inven-
tion, etc., will thus be attained.

Thought Generalization, according to the first law of
mental activity, begins in abstraction, but presupposes the
other modes of ideation, and implies the two modes of thought.
Without "thought," as psychology teaches, generalization
would be impossible. Ideation and relation, therefore, are
the complementary requirements in the development of these
processes. In other words, the cultivation of perception, con-
sciousness, memory, imagination, judgment, and reasoning,
promote the development of abstraction and generalization.
The ideas of space, time, cause, identity, utility, beauty, duty,
and truth deserve special attention. Obedience to these re-
quirements will not only stimulate and strengthen the mind
in these higher processes, but also make it its own critic. The
ideal ends in view, i.e., activity, ability, and self-reliance, will
thus be within the pupil's reach.

Sensihility. In the cultivation of the " heart," it is desira-
ble, according to the fifth general principle of education, to
develop right feelings into motives of conduct, and to subdue
such feelings as interfere with man's happiness, usefulness,
and morality. These ends can be attained, according to the
tenth law of mental activity, by exercising the feelings in
junction with the intellect and will. In other words, the
pupil's feelings must be subordinated to the ideas of utility,
beauty, duty, and truth. The pupil must be made to see the
importance of such discipline. Like Fenelon and Pestalozzi,

44 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

the teacher must invent and utilize all sorts, of situations in
the pupil's discipline. Even the physical conditions and en-
vironments of the pupil must be utilized in the cultivation of
his feelings.

Will. Subordination to the highest interests of humanity,
is the right ideal in the cultivation of the will. This end
must be attained, according to the tenth law of mental activity,
by exercising the will in junction with the intellect and the feel-
ings. In other words, the ideas of utility, beauty, duty, and
truth, must be developed into ideals, the corresponding feel-
ings must become motives to right conduct, and the habit of
pausing long enough to decide intelligently between doubtful
alternatives must take the place of impulse and caprice. When
evil ideas and tendencies are present, the will needs the mo-
mentum of right habit and the stimulus of good example.
The development of right intentions is probably the most
effective stimulus to the important habit of attention. The
physical conditions and environments of the pupil must also
be utilized in the cultivation of the will.

Concentration. III. According to the fifth general prin-
ciple of education, the best possibilities are the ends in view in
culture. These ends, according to the tenth law of mental
activity, can be attained in part at least by exercising all
functions in their natural junction. But, according to the
eleventh law of mental activity, these possibilities cannot all
be realized at once. In other words, each mental faculty has
its opportune time for maximum exercise in connection with the
rest. It is, accordingly, of utmost importance, to make every
pupil a " special" study, since the tendencies and aptitudes in
question do not ripen exactly in the same order and the same
way in all pupils.

Limits. IV. According to the twelfth law of mental ac-
tivity, race and talent limit our culture possibilities. The
ideal teacher must therefore make each pupil his special

PRINCIPLES or CULTURE 45

study. This requirement makes "child study" the most
important movement in the history of education. Apart
from such study, the " school" will crush ordinary individ-
ualities under a load of impossible tasks, and imprison genius
in " grades" made by hand. In short, the pupil's tasks must
be adapted to his individuality.

46 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

CHAPTER III.

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE.

Ideas and thoughts that are true, are termed Knowledga
Thoughts that are true of some individuals of a genus, or of
instances, are termed Particular Truths, or Facts, as, Many
people love music. Thoughts that are true of all the indi-
viduals of a genus, or of all instances, are termed General
Truths, or Principles, as. All horses are vertebrates. Truths
whose exceptions are few or unimportant, though not abso-
lutely universal, are also termed general truths. Ideas and
thoughts (facts and principles) at which the mind arrives with-
out system in process or product, constitute Common Know-
ledge. Facts and principles at which the mind arrives by
observation, induction, and deduction, and which it organizes
into a system, constitute Scientific Knowledge, or Science.
The sciences that begin with phenomena, are termed Empirical,
Sciences, as Botany, Chemistry, Psychology, etc. When the ar-
gument begins with assumptions instead of phenomena, sciences
are termed Rational.

A. SPECIES OF KNOWLEDGE.

The two species of " Being" known to man are Matter and
Mind. Matter occupies space and exists in time. Repetition
in matter and time, gives rise to number. The science of
space and number, or, the science of quantity, is termed
Mathematics. The presence of various physical and vital
forces in matter, gives rise to Physical and Biological Sciences.
The physical and biological sciences are together termed Nat-
ural Sciences. The presence of mind in living, organized
beings gives rise to the Psychological, or Mental Sciences.
The preceding catalogue exhausts all possibilities of logical
division. Thus it appears that all sciences can be classified

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 47

into three or four comprehensive species : (1) Mathematical
Sciences ; (2) Natural Sciences ; and (3) Mental Sciences.
The synthesis of sciences into a system of ultimate generaliza-
tions is termed Philosophy.

Mathematics. There are several special departments in
mathematics. (1) The science of form and extension is termed
Geometry. Trigonometry is the practical application of geom-
etry. (2) The science of numbers is termed Arithmetic. (3)
The general science of quantity is termed Algebra. Calculus
is a highly developed form of algebra.

Natural Sciences. There are many special problems, and
therefore many special departments, in the study of physical
Nature.

Physical Sciences. The presence of various physical forces
gives rise to the Physical Sciences. (1) The science of molec-
ular forces is termed Physics, or Natural Philosophy. Physics
presupposes mathematics. (2) The science of atomic forces is
termed Chemistry. Chemistry presupposes mathematics and
physics. (3) The science of the properties and formation of
minerals is termed Mineralogy. Mineralogy presupposes
mathematics, physics, and chemistry. (4) The science of the
formation of the earth is termed Geology. Geology presup-
poses mathematics, physics, chemistry, and mineralogy. (5)
The science of the heavenly bodies is termed Astronomy.
Astronomy presupposes mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc.

Biological Sciences. The presence of various life-forces in
organized beings gives rise to the Biological sciences. (1)
The science of plant-life is termed Botany. Botany presup-
poses mathematics and physical sciences. (2) The science of
animal-life is termed Zoology. Zoology presupposes mathe-
matics, the physical sciences, and botany. (3) The science of
the physical life of man is termed Physiology. Its depart-
ments are very many. Physiology presupposes mathematics,
the physical sciences, botany, and zoology.

48 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Geography. The science of the earth as marl's habitat is
termed Geography. Geography is to a very great extent an
eclectic science, its subjects of study being found within the
domain of the natural sciences and history.

Mental Sciences. The presence of mind in living, organ-
ized beings gives rise to the Mental Sciences.

Intellect. The intellect is the subject of several sciences.
(1) The science of the phenomena of consciousness is termed
Psychology. Psychology presupposes mathematics, physics,
chemistry, physiology, etc. Thus arise psychophysics, pathol-
ogy, physiological psychology, etc. (2) The science of formal
reasoning is termed Logic. Logic presupposes psychology, etc.

Feeling. As "truth" is the end of intellect, so is "pro-
priety" the heart's chief object. This relation gives rise to
Esthetics, the science of the Beautiful. (1) The science of de-
lineation is termed Drawing. (2) The science of constructing
buildings is termed Architecture. (3) The science of repre-
senting ideals in stone, etc., is termed Sculpture. (4) The
science of representation by means of form and color is termed
Painting. (5) The science of melody and harmony is termed
Music. These sciences generally follow, while common knowl-
edge precedes, the corresponding Arts.

Will. The will is the determinative element in several sci-
ences. (1) The science of events is termed History. The two
departments of history are Chronology and the Philoso]}hy of
History. (2) The science of morality is termed Ethics, or
Moral Philosophy.

Language. Language is the product of the whole mind
rather than of intellect, feeling, or will. The mind expresses
its ideas, thoughts, feelings, and volitions by means of words,
sentences, and discourse. (1) The history of words is termed
Etymology. Philology in a species of Etymology. (2) The
science of the physical structure of words is termed Orthog-
raphy. Orthography presupposes etymology, etc. (3) The

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 49

science of the sentence is termed Grammar. Grammar pre-
supposes etymology, orthography, etc. (4) The science of dis-
course is termed Bhetoric. Rhetoric presupposes grammar,
logic, etc. (5) The interpretation of discourse is termed
Beading. (6) The construction of discourse is termed Com-
posiilon. (7) The science of the structure of alphabetic letters
is termed Penmanship.

Theology. The science of God is termed Theology. The-
ology is properly classified as a mental science, and presup-
poses all other sciences. The study of God's works in order
to know God is termed Natural Theology. The study of God's
Word in order to know God is termed Revealed Theology. Re-
ligion is theology in the concrete.

Arts. The physical construction of knowledge is termed
Art. Thus we speak of the arts of penmanship, drawing,
music, painting, architecture, printing, agriculture, etc. Those
arts whose chief end is Beauty are termed Fine Arts, as music
and sculpture. Those arts whose chief end is Utility, are
termed Useful Arts, as agriculture and manufacturing.

B. THE PSYOHOLOG-Y OP SOIBNOE.

There are three steps in the process of science: (1) Idea-
tion ; (2) Direct Relation of Ideas ; and (3) Syllogism.

Ideation. In the present junction of body and mind sen-
sation and consciousness are the presuppositions of knowledge.
The process of referring sensations to physical impacts as
causes is termed Perception. Selective attention to agreements
between compared experiences of consciousness follows and
is termed Abstraction. Memory is always indispensable.
Cumulative conception follows abstraction and is termed Ap-
perception, or Generalization. Apperception is the mind's
appropriation and conception of the agreements and common
qualities in the mass of its experiences of individuals. The
resulting concept represents the mind's conquest of a subject

50 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

up to that moment. If the experiences in question are per-
ceptions apperception is external ; if they are experiences of
consciousness apperception is internal. Apperception is more
commonly termed Generalization, though the terms do not
denote absolutely the same thing. Classificatiotij the group-
ing of individuals on the ground of agreements, follows gen-
eralization. Complete generalization is the ultimate stage of
ideation. The perfection of the process depends upon the
perfection of the mind's experiences. Perfect observation is,
therefore, the first requisite in the development of a science.
The necessary supplements are memory and imagination.

The Direct Relation of Ideas. Comparison of ideas fol-
lows ideation and is termed Judgment, as, James is a pupU.
In this example the ideas compared were Jam.es and pujnl,
and the relation discovered was that of Identity. The oppo-
site, or negative relation, is termed Difierence. The process
generally amounts to the synthesis or classification of indi-
viduals, or the analysis of a genus. Sometimes, however, the
subject and the predicate of a judgment have the same extent, as,
London is the capital of England. The perfection of judgment,
or the direct relation of ideas, depends upon the perfection of
the ideas compared and the power of comparison. Perfect j udg-
ment is the second requisite in the development of a science.

Syllogism. Syllogism, the derivation of a judgment from
the relation of two judgments, follows simple judgment, and
is the final process of science. (1) In this final process science
becomes a system of introductory and ultimate syllogisms.
The introductory syllogism of science is inductive ; the ulti-
mate syllogism is deductive. The former process is a transi-
tion from individuals to the genus ; the second is a passage
from the genus to its individuals. Sometimes, however, the
argument amounts only to Traduction, the quantity of the
conclusion being the same as that of the original judgment.
(2) The Syllogistic process of science presupposes certain fun-

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 51

damental though inductive judgments termed "Laws of
Thought," because all persons without exception are subject
to them in their intellectual operations. (3) The perfection of
syllogism depends, of course, upon the perfection of the prem-
ises, the perfect cognition of their relation, and perfect obe-
dience to the laws of thought. Logical perfection is, there-
fore, the third requisite in the development of a science. (For
a complete description of the syllogism and scientific method,
the student is referred to some text-book on Logic.)

Specifie SyllogistiG Features of the Sciences. The second prem-
ise of inductions in Mathematics is much stronger than that of
the natural and mental sciences.

(1) The second premise in mathematics, with a few excep-
tions in arithmetic, passes from several experienced individuals
to the genus, and leads to a universal conclusion that reaches
beyond all possible experience, and yet the conclusion is evi-
dently valid because the individuals involved are absolutely
similar by hypothesis. When, for example, it has been found
that the sum of the angles of one triangle is two right angles,
the conclusion that the sum of the angles of any triangle is two
right angles follows irresistibly because the second premise con-
tains the truth that the one triangle is a sample of all triangles.

(2) The experienced individuals from which the second prem-
ise of natural science inductions passes to the genus, are not
always " representative individuals." It follows that the uni-
versal conclusions at which natural sciences thus arrive may
sometimes be fallacious. The history of the natural sciences is
in great part a record of such conclusions. Great experience
is, therefore, a requisite in the construction of a natural science.

(3) In the inductions of the mental sciences the gratuitous
factor is even more troublesome than in the natural sciences,
the totals being ideals rather than realities, qualities rather
than quantities.

(4) In the inductions of Philosophy, this term being used

62 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

in the sense of ultimate generalizations^ the gratuitous factor
of the second premise is the dominant factor. Encyclopedic
knowledge and logical competency are, therefore, the great
necessities in the construction of philosophy.

Note. The lines of thought just tracked in the description
of the sciences are the lines of thought which the nature of the
mind requires in their order, and they exhaust the possibilities
of the mind. The stupendous inference follows, that scientific
conclusions are often rather probable than demonstrative, i.e.,
an appeal to faith rather than sight.

C. COURSES OP STUDIES.

The correlation of the sciences (see Species of Knowledge)
and the mental stages in the development of a science (see
the Psychology of the Sciences), together with the demands
of life, must obviously determine the courses of studies in our
schools.

Correlation. In the section on " Species of Knowledge"
the attention of the reader was called to the interdependence
of the sciences. In other words, it is impossible to develop
any science without calling into service many others. In-
deed, all the sciences are related to each other somewhat like
the members of the human body, so that all parts serve all
other parts and contribute to the perfection of the whole.
This interesting and important communion of the species of
knowledge is termed Correlation. Courses of study should,
of course, be so planned as to recognize this correlation of
branches.

Concentration. Some branches can be studied to advan-
tage at earlier periods in the pupil's career, and others at later
times, and these branches, as educators believe, are also the
best means of culture at the time. Branches 'in which imi-
tation and association are the most important factors, as

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 53

spelling, pronunciation, writing, etc., should therefore receive
special attention in the lower grades, and those branches in
which the discovery of relations is the indispensable factor, as
grammar, history, arithmetic, etc., should receive special atten-
tion in higher grades. The purpose of such " concentration"
on some branch or group of branches is obvious ; it is designed
to be to the advantage of the study while it catches each men-
tal function at its high tide of possibility. (Eleventh law of
mental activity.)

Utility. Although " correlation" and " concentration" of
studies should always be the dominant ideas in the con-
struction of courses of study, the needs of life require that
programmes be somewhat adjusted to meet the demands of
our times. If one end in view in education is equipment for
life, the necessary means to this end must be introduced into
our schools.

Catalogue of Studies. The catalogue of studies on page
55 is designed to exhibit the " correlation," " concentration,"
and practical adaptability of studies for pupils of three grades,
the grades arising from the degrees of complexity in the studies
proposed for the respective grades.

Elementary Course. The "Report of the Committee of
Fifteen," being in substantial agreement with our catalogue,
distributes the branches of the Elementary Course over eight
years. (See pages 56 and 57.)

Elementary and Secondary Courses, It is believed, how-
ever, that the " Committee" fails to do justice to Numbers,
Spelling Books, Mental Arithmetic, Geometry, and Manual
Training. The "Report of the Committee on Secondary
Education in Pennsylvania" contains a programme of the
Elementary and the Secondary Courses, both very much in
harmony with the present chapter. It will serve to point out
the relation of these grades, and is therefore inserted opposite
page 58.

54 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Programmes. Dr. E. E. White suggests the excellent pro-
gramme given on page 58 for schools of three grades. It
satisfies the requirements of the present chapter, and deserves
thorough mastery.

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE

55

Elementary Coukse (6-14).

Secondary Course (14-22).

University.

Primary Grammar
Grades. Grades.

High School. College.

Reading.

Grammar.

General Grammar.

Spelling.

Rhetoric.

Languages.

Writing.

Composition.

Philology.

Language Lessons.

Literature.

Psychology.

Grammar.

English Classics.

Logic.

Dictionary.

Latin.

Theology.

Arithmetic—

Foreign Languages.

Philosophy.

1. Written.

Philology.

Etc.

2. Mental.

Psychology.

Beginners' Algebra.

Logic.

Forms. Beginners' Geometry.

Natural Theology.

Object Lessons.

Higher Arithmetic.

Special Mathematics.

Natural History.

Bookkeeping.

Philosophy of Mathe-

Physiology.

Algebra.

matics.

Geography—

Calculus.

Etc.

1. Political.

Geometry-

2. Physical.

Plane, Solid, Spherical.

Singing.

Trigonometry.

Drawing.

Analytical Geometry.

Physical Culture.

Geography.

Natural Sciences.

Manual Training.

Physics.

Biography.

Chemistry.

Travels.

Biology.

History.

Geology.
Astronomy.

Meteorology.

Fine Arts.

Art.

^Esthetics.

Physical Culture.

Manual Training.

Mythology.

History—

U. S,, General, Universal.

Philosophy of History.

Civics.

Etc.

Economics.

ExPLAN.iTioN. — For time distribution, see next page.

56

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

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THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE

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58

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

THREE-GKADE PROGRAMME.

Closing
Time

Min-
utes.

Primary (C).

Secondary (B).

Advanced (A).

9.10

10

Openiag Exercises.

9.35

25

Seat Work.*

Arithmetic.

Arithmetic.

10.00

25

Number (on slate or
with objects).

Arithmetic.

Geography.

10.25

25

Nurnber.

Geography.

Geography.

10.45

20

Form Work (paper
folding, stick lay-
ing, etc.).

Geography.

Geography.

10.55

10

Kficess.

11.15

20

Silent Reading.

Geography.

Grammar.

11.35

20

Reading and Spelling.

Form Work (map
drawing, sand
moulding, etc.).

Grammar.

12.00

25

Excused from school.

Reading.

Grammar.

Noon Intermission.

1.10

10

*

*

*

1.30

20

Form Work (clay mod-
elling,paper cutting,
etc.).

Reading.

Reading.

1.50

20

Silent Reading.

Seat Work.*

Reading.

2.10

20

Reading and Spelling.

Animal or Plant
Study.

U. S. History or Physi-
ology.

2.40

30

Writing^ or Language.^

Writing^ or Language.

JVriting" or Language.^

2.50

10

Recess.

3.10

20

Number (on slate or
with objects).

Spelling.

U. S. History or Physi-
ology.

3.35

25

Drawing,^ Singing,^ or
Moral Instruction.'^

Drawing? Singing," or
Moral Instruction.'^

Drawing,^ Singing,^ or
Moral Instruction.'^

3.50

15

Excused from school.

Spelling.

Spelling.

4.00

10

Arithmetic.

Spelling.

* As may be provided for by the teacher.

Notes.— The small figures at right indicate the number of lessons a week. United
States History may be taught the first half of the session, and Physiology the second
half ; or each branch may have two lessons a week. On Friday the last 25 minutes
may be devoted to instruction in hygiene, temperance, physics, natural history, etc.

El-EUEN

AUY Gbadbs.- Pkimaby a

»D GHAMMAR

School.

Secondary ScHooi..-IlibH School or Academy.

1st year
Age, G-7.

al year.
Age, 7-8.

3d year.
Age, 8-9.

4th year.
Age. 9-liJ.

5th year.
Age, lU-U.

6th year.
Age, 11-12.

7th year
Age, 12-13.

8th vear.
Age, 13-14.

ath year.
Age, 14-15.

10th year.
Age, 15-10.

nth year.
Age, 16-17.

12th year.
Age, 17 18.

Reasons given for beginning Latin earlier than is now the
custom.

5 p. a wk.

5 p. a wk.

5 p. a wk.

Latin to be begun a year before Greek.

5 p. a wk.

4 p. tt wk.

4 p. a wk.

Pupils to reproduce
orally stories told
them, to iuveut sto-
ries, and describe
objects.

Supplementary reading begun— and continued
through all the grades. Composition beijuu—
writing narratives and descriptions — oral and
written exercises on forms and the sentence.

From this grade
no reader to be
used.

Grammar, 3 p- a
wk.

Literature, 3 p.

a wk.
Composition, 2

p. a wk.

Literature, 3 p. a
wk. Composi-
tion, lip, a wk.

Literature, S p. a
wk. Composi-
tion, 1 p. a wk.
Khetoric, 1 p. a
wk.

Literature, 3 p. a
wk. I'oniposi-
tioii, 1 p. a wk.

Elective
German or
Fi-cnch, 5
p. a wk.

Elective
German or
French, 4
p. a wk.

Elective

French, 3 p. a
wk. at least.

Elective

French, 3 p, a
wk. at least.

Concrete Geom-
etry, 1 p. a wk.

The language
begun below,
4 p. a wk.

The same lan-
guage, 4 p. a wk.

guoge, 4 p. a wk.

The same lan-
guage. 4 p. awk.

guage, 4 p. a wk.

The same lan-
guage. 4 p. a wk.

guage, 4 p. a wk.

5. Mathejiatks

Arithmetic during first eight years, with alge-
braic expressions and symbols and simple
equations— no specific number of hours be-
ing recommended.

Concrete
Genmetrj',
1 ^ a wt.

Concrete
Geometry,
1 p. a wk.

Concrete Geom-
etrj', 1 p. a wk

Algebra, 5 p. a
wk.

Algebra or Book-
keeping and
Commercial
Arithmetic. •>%
p. awk. Geom-
etry, 21^ p. a wk.

Algebra or Book-
keeping and
Commercial
Arithmetic. 2%
p. a wk. Geom-
etry, 2% p. a wk.

Trigonometry and
higher Algebra
for candidates
for Bcientitic
schools.

0. Physics, Chemistry, AND AsTRONOBiY

Study of natural phenomena, S p. a wk. through first eight years by experiments, including physical measure-
ments and the recommendations of Conferences 7 and 9 [Committee of Ten]

Elective Astronomy, 5 p. n wk. 12
wks.

Chemistry, fi p, a
wk.

Physics, 5 p. a wk.

7. Natitual History

Through flrat eight years. 2 p. a wk.. of not less than thirty minutes each, devoted to plants and nnimals ; the
instruction to be corrolatea with language, drawing, literature, and geography.

One yr. (which yr. not si)ecified) 5 p. a wk. for hobiny and zoology. Ilalf-yr.
(late in course), anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, 5 p. a wk.

R HfflTORY

Biography and Mythology,
3 p. a wk.

American His-
tory and Ele-
ments of Civil
Government, 3
p. a wk.

Greek and Ro-
man HisUiry,
3 p. a wk.

French History.
3 p. a wk.

English History, 3
p. a wk.

H p. a wk.

intensively, and
Civil Govern-
ment, 3 p. a wk.

Phvsical Geog-
raphy.

Elective Meteorol-
og\-, l-i. this year
or next.

Elective Geology
or Physiography,
li year.

subject—
eluments
races, rel

he earth,
of astronom
Lgions, and g

ts environr
y, meteorolo
ovcmnients

oent tui<i i
gy, zotilogy,

ihabitants, including the
botany, history, commerce,

of the hiKh H'liool course ; possibly
these where election is allowed.)

more than one oi

AbbrevU^ions : p. = a recitation period of W-lo minutes ; wk, = week ; yr. = year.

I

PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE 59

CHAPTEE IV.

PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE.

The laws according to which knowledge develops in the
mind, are termed Principles of Knowledge. These principles
are ascertained by inquiry into the constitution of knowledge.

Ideas and Names. (I.) The reader may not know the
names of some parts of the pair of scissors on the table before
him, and yet be quite familiar with the qualities and uses of
those parts. The difficulty of finding words to express certain
ideas is a common experience. In the natural course of things
names are quite unnecessary in forming ideas, and are subse-
quently added to ideas to record and communicate them. The
possibility of writing, speaking, and spelling words before
their meanings are known, is only an apparent exception to
the law exhibited in the foregoing description ; in such cases
of spelling, etc., words are simply so many sounds, marks,
etc., and not really names or signs or symbols of ideas. Thus
Ave infer that Ideas precede names and signs. In accordance
with this principle new words should generally be introduced
in connection with the objects, qualities, actions, and ideas of
which they are the names. The rule should be : The idea
first, and then the name. The violation of this simple law has
many penalties.

Ideas and Truths. (II.) The reader had arrived at the
ideas of which Rose and plant are the names before he formed
the judgment, or thought, that a rose is a plant. This judgment,
indeed, presupposes the formation of the ideas of which it is
composed, and was impossible prior to the formation of such
ideas. All thoughts are formed in the same way. Now,
thoughts that are true are termed Truths. Thus it is found

60 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

to be a law that The formation of ideas 'precedes the process of
arriving at trutJis. According to this principle those ideas
which must be presupposed in the formation of any judgment,
or thought, should be developed before the attempt is made to
form the judgment in question. In other words, the rule
should be : Ideas first, and then truths. The violation of this
almost self-evident principle has brought innumerable woes to
pupils of arithmetic, grammar, geometry, etc.

Concrete and Abstract Ideas. (III.) Our first idea of
such qualities as redness, hardness, gratitude, etc., came to us
in connection with beings that were red, hard, grateful, etc.
Such ideas are termed Concrete Ideas. In time it became
possible for us to think of redness, hardness, gratitude, etc.,
without necessary reference to objects, persons, etc. Ideas
which the mind can think, and upon which, for the time being,
it can dwell without necessary reference to objects of sense,
etc., are termed Abstract Ideas. The process of arriving at
abstract ideas is always the same. The law, therefore, is that
Concrete ideas precede abstract ideas. According to this prin-
ciple abstract ideas presuppose corresponding concrete ideas
as stepping stones. It is possible, of course, to have approx-
imately correct ideas of qualities that were never experienced
in the concrete, provided that these ideas are products of syn-
thesis, analysis, etc., of other experiences. In all such cases,
however, the ideas at which the mind arrives are likely to be
vaffue and even false. The rule should be : From the concrete
to the abstract. This rule means that it is the instructor's
first duty to develop concrete ideas in the minds of his pupils.
The second duty is to transform concrete into abstract ideas.
In this process the pupil should not be hurried beyond his
capability, nor should he be allowed to remain too long in the
concrete. In the first case the result is always confusion ; in
the second, the result is intellectual shortage. Since general-
ization, the ultimate stage in the formation of ideas, presup-

PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE 61

poses abstraction, the principle just stated, and its require-
ments, are among the most important things in the problem
of education.

Particular and General Ideas. (IV.) The whole number
of individuals which have the same nature constitute a genus,
as birds, horses, etc. Our first knowledge of oranges, friends,
etc., was a knowledge of individuals and not of the genus. In
time, because we knew more oranges, etc., and found that all
individuals resembled each other in certain respects (this im-
plies memory), we began to think of these individuals as a
genus. In other words, we concluded to classify all the indi-
viduals of the same nature, however many there might be, in
one class, though we might never, as is generally the case, per-
sonally know all the individuals. This cumulative formation
of ideas, first of individuals, and then of the genus, illustrates
a mental law which may be stated as follows : General ideas
develop from particular ideas. According to this principle the
development of general ideas requires the observation of indi-
viduals of the genus in question, as birds, apples, etc. This
requirement is fundamental in the development of knowledge.
The process of observation must, however, be supplemented by
induction, the means in generalization. The neglect of this
second requirement causes want of system and organic unity
of ideas, a thing very much to be deplored.

Facts and Principles. (V.) The reader knew what was
true about some people before he could arrive at any conclu-
sion about all people. In time, because he knew more people
and found the same thing true of each person (this implies
memory), the reader concluded that the same thing, as mortal-
ity, will be true in all cases. The reader's experience illus-
trates a mental law which may be stated as follows : General
truths (^principles) develop from particular truths (facts). This
conclusion of experience is confirmed by the relation of judgment
and reasoning, the functions employed in arriving at facts and

62 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

principles respectively. According to this principle of knowl-
edge, the necessary stages in the development of a general
truth, as Matter has weight, are observation and induction. In
other words, the ideas at which we arrive by way of the senses
or consciousness must be united by direct comparison into posi-
tive or negative judgments, as Iron, air, etc., have weight, and
then the thought that l7-07i, air, etc., have weight, must be
taken as true of all matter, which amounts to the conclusion
that All matter has weight. Put in the form of a syllogism
the argument in question may be stated as follows : Iron, air,
etc., have weight ; Iron, air, etc., are representative forms of
matter; Therefore ail matter has weight. Observation and
induction are complementary processes in the development of
general truths ; without the former, the process of generaliza-
tion is impossible for want of materials, and without the latter
our thoughts could not be organized into a system. Since sys-
tem is the end in view in the development of knowledge, obe-
dience to the principle in question is of fundamental impor-
tance to teaching. For a complete explanation of this subject
Methods-students must refer to logic.

Causes, Laws, and Classes. (VI.) The reader will re-
member that amono; the earliest interests of his life was the
interest in causes, or powers. The questions which children
ask along this line are legion. Laws, or, the invariable be-
havior of causes, is probably the most common subsequent in-
terest. In other words, adults as well as children do not only
desire to know why a thing exists in the form in which it does
exist but also whether it will always be so. Thus, for exam-
ple, they wish to know why the Autumn leaves fall, and then
whether they will fall every Autumn. The desire to group
individuals on the ground of essential resemblances and diifer-
ences generally follows interest in causes and laws. It is true
that the habit of grouping objects and events on the ground
of sensible and practical resemblances and differences may be

PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE 63

developed very early in life, but such convenient classification
ignores the essential resemblances of cause and law. That
the natural order of inquiry into causes, laws, and scientific
classes, is the one just presented, is plainly confirmed by the
fact that " the ancients early made inquiries after the causes in
natural philosophy and astronomy, while the attempt to ascer-
tain the laws is of much more recent date," and by the fact
that " the scientific classifications of Natural History are much
more recent than those of Natural Philosophy, Astronomy,
etc." Thus we find that Causes, laws, and classes, form a
natural series for the mind. The relation of causes, laws, and
classes, makes the order just presented a logical order. In
other words, a knowledge of law (invariable behavior of a
cause) presupposes the study of causes under many and vari-
ous conditions, and this study requires time. Moreover, scien-
tific classes consist of individuals whose causes and laws as
well as other properties are the same in nature, so that a
knowledge of causes and laws is presupposed. For the com-
plete method of proving causes, laws, and scientific classes, see
logic.

According to the principle just stated, the study of causes
should generally precede that of laws, and the study of scien-
tific classes should come last. There are cases, however, where
the law will present itself to the mind before the cause, and
the class before the laws and causes. This is especially true
of cause, law, and class, of " positive" and " mechanical"
cases. It is generally best to develop causes and laws to-
gether, classes being taken up somewhat later. This has be-
come the rule, for example, in taking up history and physics
before biology.

Order of Facts of Sciences. (VII.) All sciences (Psy-
chology of the Sciences) are syllogistic processes. The prem-
ises, however, do not have the same sources. (1) In the
natural sciences and mathematics, observation is perceptive.

64 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

whereas it is introspective in the mental sciences, i.e., in those
based upon consciousness. (2) The abstractions of the natu-
ral sciences and mathematics, i.e., the ideas of space, number,
time, equality, etc., are comparatively near the concrete, and
therefore readily realized ; but the abstractions of the mental
sciences, especially of ethics and aesthetics, are idealities, i.e.,
they cannot be completely realized. (3) Moreover, the ele-
mentary thoughts (premises) of the mental sciences, whose
logical subject is some experience of sense or consciousness,
and whose logical predicate is some abstract concept, are less
inevitable in the mental sciences than in the natural sciences
and mathematics. Thus we conclude that The facts of the
natural sciences and mathematics precede those of the mental
sciences. According to this principle the course of elementary
schools should begin with object lessons and numbers together
with so much language, art, history, etc., as can be mastered
by the child.

Order of Principles of Sciences. (VIII.) The great
truths of mathematics were known to the ancients. The nat-
ural sciences have only lately begun to mature. Some of tlie
mental sciences are even now only in their infancy. This
order stands out as the law of the sciences, which may be
stated as follows : The principles of mathematics precede those
of the natural and the mental sciences. The relation of the
sciences (see chapter on The Nature of Knowledge) makes the
order just stated a logical necessity : (1) The natural sciences
cannot be completely developed without mathematics ; and (2)
The higher mental sciences presuppose a thorough knowledge
of mathematics and natural sciences. This conclusion is also
supported by the fact that the second premise (see Psychology
of the Sciences) of the mathematical syllogism contains noth-
ing gratuitous, whereas that of the natural and the mental
sciences does. This gratuitous factor is most difficult to deal
with in the mental sciences. According to this principle ot

PEINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE 65

knowledge mathematics should be made fundamental in higher
education. Logic should follow, for, although it is a mental
science, it is the indispensable preparation for systematic think-
ing in the natural sciences. A course in physics, chemistry,
biology, etc., should precede systematic inquiry into the higher
mental sciences.

Philosophy. (IX.) Master minds of all ages have tried
to arrive at the ultimate principles of the physical and moral
universe. In these attempts it was often necessary to criticise
the methods and conclusions of the sciences. Critical inquiry
into the possibility, certainty, and limits of knowledge, was
the task of the sceptical Kant. Modern philosophy inquires
into the postulates of the various sciences as well as into the
principles at which these sciences arrive. The truths at which
the particular sciences have admittedly arrived are then syn-
thetically summed up into ultimate principles, the purpose
being to construct a system in which the phenomena of matter
and mind are found to be the creative and regulative manifes-
tations of the One never self-contradicting and First Cause —
God. This complex syllogistic method is termed Philosophy.
It is accordingly an abstract, speculative task, and one which
presupposes cyclopedic knowledge together with great logical
ability. Thus we conclude that Philosophy presupposes the
sciences. According to this principle of knowledge, philoso-
phy should come last in a course of studies. In most cases a
thorough college course should constitute the preparatory train-
ing.

Correlation of Sciences. (X.) The study of any branch
of knowledge both presupposes and leads up to other branches,
so that it seems absolutely impossible to isolate any species of
knowledge from any other. (See " Correlation.") This genetic
contact of the various species of knowledge is ably discussed
by Dr. Arnold Tompkins, in his " Philosophy of Teaching,"
and by " The Committee of Fifteen." The great truth here

5

66 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

in question is recognized in the " group" system of studies as
offered by colleges in our days. The " eclectic" courses offered
by several noted institutions are also based upon the partial
recognition of the principle, which may be stated as follows :
The various species of knowledge are correlate.

According to this principle the daily " programme" of all
grades of schools should bring the pupil in contact with nat-
ural sciences, mathematics, and mental sciences. The prin-
ciple of " correlation" (see Principles of Culture) must, of
course, determine largely what the branches shall be. This
principle reaches its limits in the university, where, after a
general course, the student may wish to make some field of
knowledge a specialty (concentration), but even this special
course cannot be pursued to the best advantage unless the
student has passed through a correlated general course. The
principle also finds its limits in technical and professional
schools, where it must often be abandoned for practical and
economical reasons.

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 67

CHAPTER V.

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION.

Things done for the pupil's increase of knowledge, are
termed Instruction, from the Latin words i7i, into, and struo,
I build. The instructor, accordingly, is a builder of ideas
and thoughts, and his world is the pupil's intellect. And yet
he is a builder only in so far as he causes the pupil himself to
build. (See principle I., Nature of Education.) When, in
supervising the activity of learners, the teacher becomes the
best stimulus and guide, he is the ideal instructor. (See prin-
ciple II., Nature of Education.) Although instruction, since
its ends are purely intellectual, is not coextensive with culture,
whose ends are emotional and volitional as well as intellectual,
culture should nevertheless always be one result of instruction.
In this work of instruction, as well as in that of culture, the
teacher must conform with certain laws, to which, as we learn
from the nature of culture and knowledge, the development of
ideas and thoughts is subject. The general truths in question
are termed Principles of Instruction.

Adaptation of Lessons. (I.) The pupil who must over-
work himself again and again in learning lessons, as happens
when promotions are premature, is in danger of stunting the
functions used in his efforts and may become a total dwarf.
The pupil who tries hard, but fails again and again to master
lessons assigned to him, is in danger of losing faith in his
powers, or comes to believe that his teacher lacks sense in
assigning lessons. Other bad results may follow. Thus we
conclude that the learner should not be tried beyond his present
powers.

On the other hand, the pupil who is not required to put

68 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

forth vigorous efforts in learning the lessons assigned to him,
will soon come to consider himself smart, and waste his leisure
time in mischief, or else leave the school in disgust. It fol-
lows that the learner should exert himself up to his capacity
and in harmony with the stage of his development. (See chap-
ter on Laws of Mental Activity.) After ascertaining as nearly
as possible what the pupil can learn, the instructor should
assign such lessons and make such promotions as are exactly
suited to the present powers of the learner. In short, The
matter of instruction ought to be adjusted to the present powers
of the learner.

In order to find out just what is to be expected of the
learner, inquiry must be made into his age, talents, habits,
peculiarities, previous advantages, etc., and then he must be
tried on tentative lessons. If the pupil is responsive and suc-
cessful when thus tried, the instructor need not hesitate to
proceed.

Succession of Lessons, (II.) Perception presupposes sen-
sation and consciousness, abstraction presupposes perception,
generalization (conception) presupposes abstraction, judgment
presupposes ideation, syllogism presupposes judgment, etc. In
short, we see that the progressive route of thought begins with
sensation and ends in syllogism. (See the Laws of Mental
Activity.) But the mind also tends to traverse a regressive
route, the direct opposite of the progressive steps. This regres-
sive activity is necessary to assure the mind of the grounds
upon which its advances were based and in order to give
greater and better content to each progressive step.

It must, therefore, be inferred that concrete lessons should
precede abstract lessons, and that abstract lessons should be
reinforced when necessary by reverse reference to the concrete ;
that wholes should be decomposed, and parts composed into
wholes; that particular truths should be fused into general
truths, and that general truths should be realized in particular,

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 69

practical truths ; that judgments should be gathered into syl-
logisms, and conclusions traced back to their premises. (See
the Principles of Knowledge.)

The species of knowledge which thus correspond to the
necessary precedences in the functional activity of the mind,
and which precede and follow one another by reason of func-
tional precedences, are said to be in logical relation with each
other. The logical trend just noticed indicates the steps to be
required of learners. In short, The learner is to be conducted
from that which he knows to that which is in logical relation
with it.

According to this principle it is not proper in arithmetic to
study percentage before fractions, or fractions before the " fun-
damental operations." In geometry the progress from prob-
lem to problem must be a somewhat perfect junction of syl-
logisms, each one paving the way for the next one and
necessitating it. In any study some steps will not be possi-
ble for the learner until he has taken all the steps that lead
up to the one in question. So, too, geography paves the way
for history, and arithmetic for algebra ; but geography does
not pave the way for algebra, nor arithmetic for history. In
short, the various branches of study, as well as the various
steps of a branch, should precede and follow each other in the
order in which they pave the way for each other in the under-
standing of the learner. Some studies, indeed, will not be
possible for the learner until he has learned those studies
which lead up to the ones in question. (See the Principles
of Knowledge, especially the Tenth Principle.) Text-books,
courses of study, and daily instruction, should therefore be
planned so that each step is the most natural to take. The
teacher should ascertain critically just what the pupil knows,
and then lead up to that knowledge to which the knowledge
already acquired is the interpreting key.

Interesting Instruction. (HI-) The will (see tenth law

70 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

of mental activity) is subject to the law of summation of
stimuli, and, as may be observed in all the affairs of life, in-
terest is the most powerful stimulus both to mental and
physical activity. An interesting task is light ; interesting
lines of thought are almost irresistible. That lesson is most
likely to be studied which is most interesting to the pupil.
Indeed, it will not only be committed to memory, but also de-
veloped in the understanding and absorbed into the character.

It is almost impossible to study a lesson that is not interest-
ing ; in the absence of interest the will of the learner is weak
and even rebellious, and that, too, at times, in spite of duty or
entreaty. The pupil may be compelled to repeat the words
until he can recite the lesson, but that is mechanical associa-
tion, and the result, except where such association is the essen-
tial thing, as in spelling or committing extracts, is of little
value, if not an actual injury to the mind.

Thus we see the importance of enlisting the pupil's interest
in his lessons. The lessons must therefore be adapted as
exactly as possible to the learner's present powers and to
the logical needs of his present understanding (First and
Second Principles of Instruction) ; for apart from such adapta-
tions they are not interesting as a rule. When all this has
been done, it may still be necessary to lead the learner to dis-
cern some distinct, some ultimate worth in those lessons which,
in spite of adaptations to his needs, do not have any intrinsic
worth for his present judgment and mood. All these adjust-
ments and preparations should be made in the assignment of
lessons. In short. The possibility of interesting the learner is to
be considered in determining what instruction to give.

Needs of the Whole Pupil. (IV.) Three requirements
as to the matter of instruction have been noticed : (1) The mat-
ter of instruction ought to be adjusted to the present powers
of the pupil. (2) The learner is to be conducted from his
present knowledge to that which is in logical relation with it.

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 71

(3) The possibility of interesting the pupil is to be considered
in determining what instruction to give. But the functional
development of the pupil, as well as the logical junction of the
lessons to be learned and the interest taken in these lessons,
will have ulterior consequences of the most tremendous signifi-
cance in religious, moral, practical, sesthetic, and physical mat-
ters. In other words, the superior and ultimate prosperity of
the whole pupil is affected by the course of studies upon which
he occupies his mind. This is the fundamental presumption
of education. Thus we see the importance of taking into ac-
count all the needs of the pupil in choosing a course of lessons
for him. The proper questions for the instructor are there-
fore as follows : (1) With what objects are the senses of the
pupil to be occupied ? (2) With what contents is the memory
to be filled ? (3) Upon what materials should imagination
operate? (4) From what mass of experiences should the
mind cull its concepts? (5) Within what domain, practical,
moral, religious, etc., should the understanding try to cognize
relations ? In short, The needs of the whole pupil are to be
considered in determining what instruction to give.

Right Method of Instruction. (V.) It is one thing to
settle what instruction ought to be given, and quite another
thing to settle what the method of instruction ought to be.
But if it is true that the learner ought to be conducted from
his present knowledge to that which is in logical relation with
it (Second Principle of Instruction), then it is evident enough
that the logical junction, whatever it may be, which exists
between that which is known and that which is to be learned,
must be the transition to be required of the learner.

The logical trend (see the Second Principle of Instruction)
is from the whole to its parts, as in a spoken word and its
sounds, or a sentence and its elements ; from the parts to the
whole, as in sentence construction or addition ; from the con-
crete to the abstract, as in geography or arithmetic ; from the

72 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

abstract to the concrete, as in reading or algebra ; from the
simple to the complex, as in generalization and classification ;
from the particular to the general, as in learning causes, laws,
conditions, etc., through observation and hypothesis ; from the
general to the particular, as in working problems according to
rule, or in obedience to laws ; from practice to theory, as in
explaining processes, or justifying courses of action ; from the-
ory to practice, as in the application of philosophy or science
to the tasks of life. Accordingly we conclude that analysis
and synthesis, induction and deduction, are the essential forms
of instruction. It is deemed of the utmost importance to
require the pupils to take these steps as the necessity of the
case may dictate, and always with due inquiry into the ability
and interest of the learner. (See First and Third Principles
of Instruction.) The mind developed in accordance with this
law will attain not only to extensive knowledge, but to the
highest wisdom. Accordingly, The logical relation of that
which is known to that which is to be learned determines the true
method of instruction.

Right Mental Activity in Instruction. (VI.) That which
is required of pupils in preparing a lesson and reciting it, does
not generally necessitate the employment of those functions
which ought to be employed. (1) Many teachers do not make
it necessary for their pupils to use their imagination and under-
standing in studying and reciting a reading lesson. (2) Too
much oral spelling is allowed, seeing that the eye and hand are
the better media of memory in spelling. Such a thing as in-
ductive thinking in learning to spell is almost unknown, and
yet that is essential to highest attainments in spelling. (3)
AVriting is taught without strong appeal to the pupil's sense
of the appropriate and the beautiful. The will is seldom re-
quired to put forth its best efforts in penmanship, and yet that
is in nine cases out of ten the surest road to success with the
pen. (4) A parrot-like repetition of the text is often all that

PEINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 73

is required of pupils in geography, whereas observation, imag-
ination, and reasoning are of the highest importance. (5) The
same folly is common in teachers of history and composition.
(6) Pupils are allowed to commit grammar, geometry, etc.,
whereas observation, judgment, and all the modes of reasoning
are essential.

The results, intellectual, moral, and practical, are deplorable.
The teacher that knows no better, or, knowing better, fails to
do better, is evidently out of place in the school-room. In
order to improve the functions of the pupil as a whole, and
to instruct him in the highest sense, the teacher must require
of him that study and those tests which necessitate the most
appropriate and the most essential mental activity. In other
words. The method of instruction should necessitate in learners
the employment of those mental functions which ought to be
employed in learning that which is to be learned.

Culture of Instruction. (VII.) " In learning anything
there are two points to be considered ; 1st, the advantage we
shall find from knowing that subject or having that skill, and
2d, the effect which the study of that subject or practising for
that skill will have on the mind or body." The latter consid-
eration is regarded of primary importance in education. But
it does not follow that a course of instruction, even if it em-
ploys the functions which ought to be employed, improves
those functions to the utmost limit. And this failure is due
to improper employment of the functions in question. When,
for example, the senses are not required to be used with in-
terest and attention, or the memory is only mechanical associa-
tion, or judgment goes unchallenged, or reasoning is deductive
when it should be inductive and vice versa, the results will of
<;ourse be disappointing. In such cases the pupil will not
jain strength, nor better his habits and interests, and his
grandest possibilities may be destroyed or go unused. It is
only when functions are employed in accordance with the laws

74 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

of psychic activity (see the chapter on Methods of Culture)
that they improve as they can and should improve. Accord-
ingly, The methods of instruction should necessitate such employ-
ment of functions as duly improves them.

Emancipation in Instruction. (VIII.) A time should
come when a learner may be safely put in charge of himself,
a time when he ought to take his own destiny into his own
hand, a time when he may become at least one of his teachers,
and that a most effective one. (See the Third General Prin-
ciple of Education.) In order that this point in the develop-
ment of the pupil may be reached, he must be required to
study as he should study until it becomes his established habit
to study in that way, and until his interests as well as his
power, are such as to warrant his emancipation from an in-
structor's authoritative tutelage. In other words. The method
of instruction should tend to free the learner from the necessity
of supervision. But what are the habits and methods and
moods of study that should be cultivated in the pupil in order
that he may attain freedom from an instructor's authority and
supervision? These habits, etc., have been indicated in the
chapters on Methods of Culture and Principles of Instruc-
tion. To these chapters the reader is expected to refer. Fore-
most among other things it should be required of learners to
be observant, earnest, accurate, industrious, reflective, and
systematic.

Specific Methods of Instruction. (IX.) The public
schools dare not forget that in general at least their mission
is practical as well as cultural, but it is not to be required
of them, nor to any great extent, of the colleges, to train
directly for special professions, arts, or destinies. The latter
training is the professed and essential mission of technical
schools.

In technical schools it is a duty to do whatever can be done
to fit the pupil for specific vocations. Accordingly, the course

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 75

of study and the methods of instruction, as well as those of
culture, are to be adapted to the ends in view. The methods
of instruction in particular ought to necessitate in learners the
formation of those habits and moods which will be of most
service in specific vocations. In some vocations the great need
is skill in analyzing ; in others it is skill in synthesis, or in-
duction, or deduction, or a number of these, perhaps all of
them. In many occupations the work is concrete ; in others
it is more abstract. In some arts earnestness or industry is
most necessary ; in others, system or accuracy. Thus, Specific
methods of instruction are to be employed in fitting pupils for
specific vocations.

Ideal Instruction. (X.) Ideation, as psychology teaches,
begins in perception, if things, as plants, birds, etc., are the
objects of thought, and in consciousness, if " self" is the object
in question. In abstraction external and internal qualities, as
solidity, conscientiousness, etc., become the objects of thought.
Abstraction, accordingly, is the second stage of ideation. The
third and final stage of ideation is the cumulative process,
commonly termed generalization, by which the mind builds
object-concepts, as vertebrates, emotions, etc., and quality-
concepts, as transparency, intensity, etc. If the mass of ex-
periences out of which object-concepts and quality- concepts
are formed is acquired through perception together with mem-
ory, generalization is termed external apperception, but if the
origin of the experiences in question is consciousness, general-
ization may be termed internal apperception. In this com-
plete process of ideation, memory preserves and imagination
enlarges experience. Direct comparison, or judgment, is essen-
tial to abstraction, or analytic attention, while indirect com-
parison, or reasoning, although apparently absent in many
cases, is always essential to generalization, or synthetic atten-
tion.

By direct relation, or judgment, ideas become the subjects

76 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

and predicates of logical judgments, and judgments containing
" middle" terms become premises of syllogism, or indirect re-
lation, the inductive syllogism ending in opinion or truth that
must in turn become the point of departure for many practical
deductions, as rules and methods. No science or philosophy
has ever been developed in any other way, nor given birth to
any art by any other process.

The series to which attention has been called, exhausts, as
psychology shows, the possibilities of the human intellect. To
complete the series should therefore be the end in view in in-
struction. This requirement harmonizes with the principles
of correlation, concentration, and knowledge, and it cannot be
inconsistent with the demands of life, unless life and mind be
contradictions. In this treatise the term observation will be
used to designate ideation in connection with direct relation of
ideas. Induction and deduction, according to the fifth prin-
ciple of knowledge, are the successive phases of indirect rela-
tion of ideas. Accordingly, The successive requirements of
ideal instruction are observation, induction, and deduction. This
method of instruction is sometimes called "psychological,"
because it satisfies mental requirements, and " scientific," be-
cause the end in view is complete knowledge.

PART III.
METHODS OF TEACHING.

77

METHODS OF MENTAL CULTUEE 79

CHAPTER I.

METHODS OF MENTAL CULTUEE.

In our inquiry into the nature of education and the princi-
ples of culture, it was found that self- activity was the
basis of education, but that stimulus and reinforcements
were necessary supplements of self-activity. Ideal methods
of culture must satisfy these requirements. It is proposed,
therefore, to point out in this chapter the required means in
the cultivation of the intellect, sensibility, and will, and to
show how these means may be made most effective.

Perception. The appropriate means in cultivating percep-
tive power and right perceptive habits are as follows :

1. There must be general and habitual observation. Mental
activity begins in the senses. The little ones are all ear and
eye and hand. This fervent inquisitiveness of childhood, alas,
too often ceases when childhood ceases. There is too much
caprice in our use of the senses. Most people see and hear
only what they cannot avoid. Education should lead us to
look all around, over head and under foot, into crevices, —
everywhere except where looking would be sin or evil. This
is what is meant when it is said that observation should be
general. Then, too, observing should become a habit with us,
i.e., we ought to make observing a business rather than a mat-
ter of fits and starts. It is in this business-way that the mind
must get its necessary stock of concrete ideas.

2. There must be frequent and well-planned observation les-
sons. There are daily opportunities for these lessons, though
they may be given less often, according to circumstances.
They should be lessons on Form, Color, Parts, Qualities, and
on the Elements of Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, and Physi-

80 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

ology. Some lessons on Chemistry and Natural Philosophy
are very much in place. These lessons should always be
suited to the stages of the child's development. Moreover,
they should by all means be interesting, instructive, and ben-
eficial lessons.

3. The objects studied should be described and sketched if pos-
sible. If at first children happen to be timid, they should be
assisted in describing and sketching. In a short time pupils
will take courage and enjoy these exercises. It is only when
children are required to describe and sketch objects that exact
and industrious observation will become a solid habit.

Memory. In order to develop memory in pupils, the
teacher should observe the following suggestions :

1. Develop real interest in that which is to be committed.
The mental excitement denoted by the term interest is at the
same time a nervous excitement, and for that reason results in
definite neurosis. This explains why interesting facts are so
easily retained and so completely recalled at pleasure. Ac-
cordingly, if that which is to be committed happens not to be
interesting in itself, as in the case of the multiplication table
or spelling, it is the teacher's business to put interest into it,
as when he points out to pupils the convenience of the multi-
plication table or the necessity of orthography. The teacher
will be able to make many uninviting lessons interesting,
sometimes through illustration, sometimes by argument or ex-
planation, and sometimes by personal enthusiasm or moral
influence.

2. Develop true attention. When the work to be done by
memory is interesting, the mind becomes attentive of its own
accord. But in many cases pupils must be required to com-
mit and reproduce facts that are far from being interesting.
Then, too, even interesting facts do not adhere to memory
when they come in too great numbers or too rapidly. In such
cases voluntary effort must be put forth in committing and

METHODS OF MENTAL CULTUEE 81

recalling. The strongest eflfort usually results in the most
definite neurosis, and thus in the best memory. Accordingly,
it becomes the teacher's business to cultivate concentration in
his pupils, not its semblance, but the very thing itself. He
can do this in various ways, but especially through his own
example, as well as through tasks in which such concentration
is essential.

3. Require frequent repetition. Words and facts "com-
mitted to memory" do not by this committal become posses-
sions or contents of which the mind continues to be conscious
in an unbroken stream from the moment of their commit-
ment, but the act of committing affects more or less perma-
nently the nervous apparatus which is in the employ of
memory. It is through revival of these former neural activi-
ties that the mind in its present junction with the body must
arrive at "second editions" of its former contents, i.e., at a
repetition of its former activities. This psychic repetition is
either simple "remembrance" or "recollection," the former
being a revival without voluntary effort, the latter a volun-
tary one. For the degree of its success this mental repe-
tition must obviously depend on two conditions : (1) How
thoroughly was the nervous apparatus affected in committing?
and (2) How securely have these imprints on the nervous
apparatus been retained?

Thus it appears that words and facts which are not to be
forgotten must be repeated again and again with most faithful
perseverance, first at short intervals of time, and then at longer
intervals. Indeed, these repetitions, or reviews, ought to be
so frequent as to result in neural ownership, or habit, i.e., a
persistent possession in the nervous apparatus through which
alone, in the present junction of body and mind, memory is
possible. In that event recollection and recognition will be
an easy revival in consciousness through the medium of easy
neurosis. Thus, for students who will put forth vigorous and

82 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

persevering efforts, it is possible to master vocabularies, de-
clensions, inflections, idioms, extracts, rules, principles, etc.
Accordingly, in the cultivation of memory it is of the utmost
importance to require frequent repetition.

4. Have pupils commit many extracts of prose and poetry.
It is impossible to name a function of body or mind that does
not improve through appropriate exercise. It cannot be
proved that memory is an exception to this rule. Indeed,
observation and experience go to show that among the func-
tions of the mind none is more capable of improvement
through exercise than memory. Inasmuch, then, as exercise
is to be given to memory, it is well for obvious reasons to
select such tasks as may indirectly promote practical, moral,
and sesthetic understanding, and language, as well as memory.
This will be hitting two birds with one stone. Accordingly,
pupils should be required to commit many extracts of prose
and poetry. These extracts should be adapted to the child's
stage of development — especially to his understanding — and
they ought to be such as will serve not only to fix linguistic
moulds for the child, but also true views of life and destiny .

5. Help the child find the best cohesions in committing. It is
of the highest importance to understand that which is to be
committed. In that case words and facts will cohere more
effectually in consciousness, and their imprints in the nervous
apparatus will be more directly connected and hence more
readily restored. Moreover, through the interest and atten-
tion that usually attach to what the mind understands, the
nervous imprints will be more definite and therefore more en-
during. Therefore, the cohesions in committing should be evi-
dent, and natural, i.e., not forced ; and logical, i.e., connected
as cause and effect. In addition to this, the mind should be
in a responsive mood and the body ready for service to the
mind. Thus appears the propriety of studying certain lessons,
with a mind that is free from preoccupation or worry, and at

METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 83

those times of the day when the ner\ ous system is more vigor-
ous. In other words, the best cohesions in committing result
from the completest obedience to the " laws of association."
(See text-book on Psychology.)

Imagination. The importance of cultivating imagination
until it becomes what it ought to be in quantity, propensity,
and quality, is too often forgotten by teachers. In this work
it is well for teacher and pupil to heed the following sugges-
tions :

1. Observe that which is lovely and inspiring everywhere in
Nature. Sensation stimulates imagination; it is an indis-
pensable stimulation ; its quantity and quality have much to
do with the quantity and quality of imagination. Thus arises
the importance of choosing our sensations, if we would improve
our imagination. In most people there is enough imagina-
tion, but so often it is of a poor quality. This ought to be
remedied. Accordingly, it is imperative to observe the lovely
and inspiring everywhere in Nature. Those who hope to live
in a world of their own construction, sublime and beautiful,
must be much in contact with the sights and forms and sounds
of the world which God has made. In other words, it ought
to be a habit of ours to seek the quiet valley and the murmur-
ing stream, sweet birds and flowers, starlight and the azure
sky. And again we ought to know majestic mountains, mighty
rivers, foaming cataracts, the storm, the sea.

2. Observe that which is lovely and inspiring in Art. The
works of Art, though far inferior to the works of God, are
very lovely and inspiring. Architecture, sculpture, painting,
music, poetry, and fiction, have created for the eye and the ear
and the hand what these need in order to stimulate imagina-
tion. Those who would expand their little world beyond its
narrow real limits may do so in the presence of majestic tem-
ples, graceful statuary, the paintings of the Masters, tender or
majestic music, poetry, and fiction. The figures of the poet.

84 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

the characters and events of fiction, etc., all tend to stimulate
and refine imagination in those who read and see and hear.

3. Enrich the mind with lovely and inspiring memories of
Nature and Art. The same nervous apparatus is active in
sensations and their reproduction, i.e., the neural process of
memory is simply a reproduction — however faint it be — of
past sensations. It is obvious, therefore, that, if sensations
stimulate imagination, their reproduction in memory will do
so too. Indeed, the psychic phase of memory (the " second
editions" proper) is itself a species of reproductive imagina-
tion. From this reproductive phase of imagination to its pro-
ductive phase the transition is spontaneous. Thus arises the
great importance of stimulating and purifying and ennobling
imagination through restoring " memories" of those things
which are lovely and inspiring in Nature and Art. This
habit of recalling what was seen and heard in field and forest,
among birds and flowers, as well as in galleries of Art, or in
books, is not only a delightful habit, but one that tends to de-
velop imagination into an inner world of beauty and sublimity,
loveliness and splendor, grace and majesty.

4. Make associates of imagination and thought. In many
branches of study it is possible to employ the imagination in
helpful connection (see the Second Principle of Culture) with
" thought." This is especially the case with geography, his-
tory, geometry, physical science, and literature. In all these
connections thought becomes the reinforcement of imagination.

Thought. According to the first principle of culture, the
fundamental thing in the cultivation of " thought," is practice
in judging and reasoning. In the earlier stages of thought,
the concrete and particular are the most effective stimulus; in
the later stages the abstract and general should be gradually
substituted. In these transitions the teacher must be guided
by the measure of the pupil's interest and ability. Inductive
and deductive thought should generally be correlated. The

METHODS OF MENTAL CULTUEE 85

cultivation of thought need not be deferred, as Rousseau
seemed to think, to the grammar school period, but should
begin, as psychology teaches, in the lower grades. The com-
mon school branches are the teacher's convenient means not
only in lower, but also in higher grades. History, geography,
grammar, and arithmetic, are best suited to the grammar school
age. Physical geography, geometry, and algebra, together with
botany and natural philosophy, are suitable for high school
pupils. General history, psychology, and the classics, are use-
ful means in Normal schools and colleges.

Sensibility. The following suggestions will be found good
rules in the cultivation of the feelings. These rules, inferred
from psychology, are based upon the relation of the feelings
to intellect and will.

1. Surround the pupil loith ennobling influences. The heart
is a harp of a thousand strings ; it vibrates with the slightest
touch ; it moves in response to all that comes to it through
intellect and sense. Thus .it becomes possible to cultivate the
feelings by means of books, pictures, companions. Nature,
Art, etc. The teacher should never grow weary in trying to
surround his pupils with such influences, physical and spirit-
ual, as will tend to ennoble the emotions, affections, desires,
hopes, etc., of his pupils.

2. Resort to moral, sesthetic, and spiritual precepts. Improper
thoughts generate improper feelings, and proper thoughts, to
say the least, tend toward the opposite result, i.e., proper feel-
ings. Thus it follows that the "heart" is to be cultivated
through the "head." Accordingly, it is possible to improve
the feelings through those precepts which improve Conscience
(moral precepts), through those which improve Taste (sesthetic
precepts), and through those which lift the thoughts toward
God, or the things of God (spiritual precepts). These lessons
may be formal, as in set talks, or informal, as in the study of
biography, art, and Holy Writ.

86 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

3. Set the pupil worthy examples. Direct contact with a
noble-hearted teacher is worth more to the feelings of pupils
than all precepts put together. Pupils, so to say, absorb the
feelings of the teacher, and drift into his current. It must
therefore be important that the teacher cultivate propriety and
vigor of feeling in himself, not only for his own sake, but also
for absorption by his pupils. The study of appropriate biog-
raphy will have a similar effect. " Boys Who Became Great
Men," is a most excellent book for this purpose. The teacher
should also see to it, whenever possible, that none of his pupils
are spoiled by evil examples in school-mates.

4. Require the pupil to master his evil impulses. To master
one's feelings absolutely, is simply impossible; and yet it is
quite possible to concentrate one's thoughts more or less on
worthy objects, thus breaking the tyrannous sway of one's im-
pulses. Pupils should be incited in every possible way to
think of duty, justice, mercy, truth, etc., and to dislodge all
feelings that are out of harmony with better sense or sober
reason. The boy that will make honest efforts to obey these
higher ideas will in time develop in himself the power to
subordinate his impulses to reason, and the power to master
himself in most trying situations.

Will. Apart from intelligent vigor of will, the mind can-
not develop adequately nor do its work in the world. (See
"Nature of Education.") The following suggestions, based
on the relation of will to intellect and emotion (" Total Inter-
action," page 28), are good rules in the cultivation of will.

1. Develop noble conceptions and emotions. It is the nature
of the mind not to will except when there are motives, or
stimuli. These stimuli are of two kinds, namely, intellectual
and emotional. In other words, noble ideas and the feelings
arising from these ideas, tend to ennoble the will, but ignoble
ideas and the feelings arising from these ideas, tend to vitiate
the will. The most effective motives, as we know by inquiry

METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 87

into human " interests/' are the ideas of utility, truth, beauty,
and duty. These ideas should, therefore, be developed into
intentions, or ideals, in the character of pupils. The " love"
through which the ideas in question become ideals, is the strong-
est stimulus in life. (1) To accomplish these ends, the teacher
should find or create concrete situations for his pupils, and then
add such instruction as may serve his purposes. This was the
method of Pestalozzi and Fenelon. Older pupils should study
economics, physical and mathematical science, aesthetics, and
ethics. (2) The motives, career, and destiny of historical per-
sons, should be studied in the light of mental sciences. Older
students should also study comedy and tragedy ; for thus they
will build up for themselves types of character with which
they may compare themselves, and thus take warning from
the fate of others. (3) When instruction fails, as in " The
Evolution of Dodd," penalties must be inflicted ; for these
will often impress lessons otherwise despised and disobeyed.
This is a special sphere of school management.

2. Require vigorous activity in all tasks. Attention and in-
tention, as was pointed out in the chapter on mental activity,
are the characteristic phases of volition, or decision. Punctual
and regular attention together constitute industry. Persistent
attention is known as perseverance. When any one is master
of himself, as in trying circumstances or amid adverse forces,
the voluntary self-mastery is termed Self-Control. Purpose
and resolution are strong intentions.

It will be noticed that in all these forms of self-determina-
tion, the invariable element is effort, assertion, vigor. In short,
vigor is the one thing to be cultivated in the cultivation of the
will. It should therefore be required of pupils to be attentive,
industrious, persevering, and self-possessed. The ordinary
duties of study and exercise, as found in the present curricu-
lum of schools, aiford ample opportunity for the cultivation
of will in pupils. The teacher should see to it that pupils try

88 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

to master }:)ractical difficulties, overcome obstacles, and put
forth intelligent, courageous effort in all tasks. Gymnastic
exercises are especially valuable in cultivating attention,
decision, courage, perseverance, and self-control.

In the getting of an education attention is nearly every-
thing. The same holds true of success in the various depart-
ments of life. It is therefore of the very greatest importance
to cultivate attention in our pupils.

The following suggestions will aid the teacher in cultivating
attention in pupils :

1. The teacher must show in his face and voice and manners
that he is himself interested in the subject under consideration.
The effect will be electric.

2. The teacher must use the best methods of instruction and
the greatest possible skill in speech. Professional training is
simply indispensable.

3. The teacher must assign such tasks in recitation and out
of recitation as will require close observation and vigorous
thinking.

4. The teacher must study every pupil in particular, in
order to win and hold his attention.

OBJECT LESSONS 89

CHAPTER 11.

OBJECT LESSONS.

A COERECT conception of object lessons is of the greatest
importance in determining right methods of instruction. (See
the Principles of Instruction.) Two problems, therefore, de-
serve our attention in this chapter : (1) The Nature of Object
Lessons; and (2) The Method of Instruction in Object
Lessons.

,THB NATURE OF OBJECT LESSONS.

What object lessons really are, is most conveniently set
forth under the following heads : (1) The Subjects of Study ;
(2) The Ends in View ; (3) The Method of Study ; and (4)
The History of Object Lessons.

The Subjects of Study. " Object Lessons," as indicated
by the name, are lessons on objects. But, to avoid misconcep-
tions, it must be added that object lessons are concerned only
with sensible objects. Any object of the pupil's environment
may be studied. The object may be a product of Nature or
manufacture. Object lessons in which the things with which
the physical sciences are concerned, are the subjects of study,
have been most appropriately termed " Nature Studies."

The Ends in View in Object Lessons. The ends in
view, as in all studies which deserve a place in our schools,
are two, namely, (1) Culture and (2) Instruction.

Culture in Object Lessons. Object lessons are designed to
exercise the pupil's mind in such a way as to utilize and im-
prove all its fimctions, but especially the perceptive function
in connection with memory, judgment, and attention. The
propriety of object lessons as a means of culture will be con-
sidered under the importance of object lessons.

90 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Instruction in Object Lessons. Object lessons are also de-
signed to equip pupils with such knowledge of their environ-
ment as will serve the practical, moral, and aesthetic ends of
life. In order to accomplish this end the forms, colors, parts,
qualities, powers, etc., of objects are made special subjects of
study. The propriety of object lessons as a means of in-
struction will be considered under the importance of object
lessons.

The Method of Study. In the study of objects the whole
pupil can be at work, but all the activities into which he enters
must begin in the senses. This is the characteristic feature of
the study of objects. Conceptive and reflective attention must,
however, be added to perceptive attention as necessary com-
plements and reinforcements. (See Rosenkranz.) In the
case of younger pupils, the study of objects may amount
only to observation, i.e., to inquiry into facts, but older pupils
will seek after the general truths of phenomena and make
these truths rules of conduct, i.e., they will study not only
by observation, but also by induction and deduction. The
experiments of the physical sciences are object lessons in this
higher sense.

The History of Object Lessons. Perhaps there never
was a time in the history of education when object lessons
were not regarded as an essential part of primary instruction.
In practice teachers have differed considerably. Some teach-
ers introduced such instruction as adjuncts of various studies.
Although Locke, Comenius, and others, advocated object les-
sons, the credit of introducing them as a distinct method of
elementary instruction is usually given to Pestalozzi. In our
days the systems introduced by educators of former centuries
have been expanded and perfected. Modern education lays
great stress on " Nature Studies," and correlates these with
literature. The Normal schools provide special courses of
training in object lessons, and many writers outline systematic

OBJECT LESSONS 91

courses of work for our schools. Among other suggestive au-
thors are Sheldon, Calkins, Prince, Walker, and Ricks. The
probabilities are that object lessons, though sometimes em-
ployed amiss, have come to stay in our schools. (See Impor-
tance of Object Lessons.)

INSTRUCTION IN OBJECT LESSONS.

The following topics deserve the teacher's attention at
this point: (1) The Courses of Object Lessons; (2) The
Method of Instruction ; and (3) The Importance of Object
Lessons.

COURSES OF OBJECT LESSONS.

Lessons on objects should begin when the child enters
school ; they should continue through all the years of school,
the most interesting objects and the simplest phases coming
up for study at first, the harder object coming later and the
method developing into complete experiment. (See first three
principles of instruction.) In order to systematize object les-
sons, the schools should offer courses in Form, Color, Parts,
Qualities, Facts, etc.

I. FOEM.

Three things deserve our present attention : (1) Embodi-
ments of Forms ; (2) The Method of Teaching Forms ; and
(3) The Importance of Teaching Forms.

The Embodiment of Forms. The objects of the child's
environment are embodiments of elementary forms into which
(see chapter on Drawing) these objects can be analyzed.
Every school-room should be supplied with a box of geomet-
rical forms and such objects as resemble these forms. If the
teacher cannot construct the geometrical forms, he can proba-
bly induce his directors to pay for the necessary supply. The
Milton Bradley Company, Springfield, Massachusetts, is ready
to supply all the special materials for object lessons. Supple-

92

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

mentary objects should be collected by the pupils under the
teacher's supervision.

Elementary Forms. The following catalogue of forms will
serve as an outline of the course of lessons on Form. Pupils
should know these forms at the age of fourteen.

Elements of Form.

Lines. Angles.

Polygons.

1. Lines.

1. Straight. 1. Right.

1. Triangles.

2. Angles.

2. Curved. 2. Acute.

2. Quadrilaterals.

3. Surfaces.

3. Broken. 3. Obtuse.

3. Pentagons.

4. Volumes.

4. Parallel.

4. Hexagons.

5. Oblique.

5. Heptagons.

6. Octagons.

7. Nonagons.

8. Decagons.

Triangles.

Quadrilaterals. Circle.

Circular Forms.

1. Angles.

1. Parallelograms. 1. Circumference.

1. Oval.

(1) Right.

(1) Square. 2. Diameter.

2. Ellipse.

(2) Obtuse.

(2) Rectangle. 3. Radius.

3. Ring.

(3) Acute.

(3) Rhombus. 4. Arc.

4. Crescent,

2. Sides.

(4) Rhomboid. 5. Chord.

(1) Equilateral.

2. Trapezoid. 6. Segment.

(2) Isosceles.

3. Trapezium. 7. Sector.

(3) Scalene.

8. Tangent.

9. Secant.

10. Quadrant.

11. Semi-circle.

12. Semi-circumfer-

ence.

Polyhedrons.

Round Bodies.

Conic Sections.

1. Prism.

1. Cyliuder.

1. Ellipse.

(1) Cuhe.

2. Cone.

2. Parabola.

(2) Parallelopipedon. 3. Frustum of Cone.

3. Hyperbola.

(3) Triangular prism, etc. 4. Sphere.

2. Pyramid.

5. Hemisphere.

Complex Forms.

3. Frustum of Pyramid. 6. Ovoid.

1. Catenary.

4. Plinth.

7. Ellipsoid.

2. Spirals.

8. Circular Plmth.

3. Cycloid.

The Method of Teaching Forms. (1) The first thing to
do in teaching a form, is to require the pupil to observe it. It
is not enough to show the pupil one example ; others must be
added to stimulate comparison, thus prompting abstraction
and conception. (2) Since the names of forms cannot be dis-
covered by the pupil's unaided effort, these must be given by

OBJECT LESSONS 93

the teacher, but always in strictest association with the form
itself. (3) The teacher should draw the form in question or
construct it, and require the pupils to do so. This require-
ment will be an incentive to close observation, and a prepara-
tion for the pupil's inductive description, or definition, of the
form under consideration. (4) The pupil should be required
to define, i.e., to describe the form observed, named, pictured,
and made. This requirement will stimulate the closest atten-
tion, and develop the power to express actual knowledge. (5)
The pupil should be encouraged to discover as many occur-
rences of the studied form as can be found in his environ-
ment. This requirement will make the pupil a deductive
thinker, and lead him to use his knowledge of form in the in-
terpretation of his surroundings. (6) The teacher should lead
the pupils to see why one form rather than others is used in
practical life. This will make the pupil a thinker, and teach
him to help himself in many practical difficulties. The sesthetio
powers of forms should also be taught.

Importance of Teaching Forms. (1) The study of forms
(see chapter on Drawing) is a most excellent discipline. (2)
A knowledge of forms is essential in the interpretation of the
physical universe. (3) The culture and knowledge obtained
in the study of forms is an essential equipment in the study
of geometry, in art, and in many practical affairs.

II. COLOE.

a. Ifie Nature of Color.
In order to understand the nature of color, it is necessary
to study (1) The Solar Spectrum, (2) Synthesis of Colors, (3)
Analysis of Compounds, (4) Complements, (5) Harmonies, and
(6) Broken Colors. The Young-Helmholtz theory (see Nat-
ural Philosophy) is quite generally accepted by the scientists
of the present time. A very convenient statement of this the-
ory and its applications to education is to be found in " Color

94 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

in the Schoolroom," by the Milton Bradley Company, Spring-
field, Massachusetts. This little book should be in the hands
of every teacher.

The Solar Spectrum. " According to this theory all
color in Nature is contained in sunlight, which is practically
white light. When a beam of sunlight, admitted into a dark-
ened room, passes through a glass prism it is spread out like
a fan into a band of beautiful colors, beginning at one end
with a dark red, gradually changing to a brighter red, which
runs into an orange and then through yellow, green, and blue
to violet, which gradually fades away into darkness." This
band of colors is termed the Solar Spectrum. " The beam of
sunlight is composed of a great number of different kinds of
rays, which in passing through the prism are refracted or bent
from their direct course, and some are bent more than others ;
the red least of all, and the violet most. It is supposed that
light is propagated by waves or undulations, in an extremely
rare substance termed ether, which is supposed to occupy all
space and transparent bodies. These waves are thought to be
similar to sound waves in the air, or the ripples on the smooth
surface of a pond when a pebble is thrown into it."

Standard Colors. " The standards must, of course, be chosen
from the solar spectrum. The amount that rays of light are
refracted from a straight line in passing through a prism is in
proportion to the number of waves or undulations per second,
and in inverse proportion to the length of the waves. The red
waves are refracted the least and are the longest, while the
violet rays are refracted the most and are the shortest." The
following wave-lengths are assumed as standard colors : 6600,
Eed ; 6100, Orange ; 5800, Yellow ; 5200, Green ; 4700, Blue ;
4200, Violet. (The figures represent ten millionths of a
millimetre.)

Scales of Color. (1) " Any pure or full color mixed with
white, or reduced by strong light," is termed a Tint. (2) " A

OBJECT LESSONS 95

full color in shade, i.e., with a low degree of illumination," is
termed a Shade. (3) " A Scale is a series of colors consisting
of a pure or full color at the centre and graduated by a succes-
sion of steps to a light tint on one side and a deep shade on the
other." (4) " A color mixed with a smaller quantity of an-
other color is called a Tone." Thus a scale of color is any
spectrum transition from tint through tone into shade. (5)
Accordingly there may be as many Scales of Color as there are
standards or tones in the spectrum.

Synthesis of Colors. "If having a prismatic spectrum
thrown on a screen in a dark room we hold two small mirrors
in the path of the light, one so placed as to receive, for exam-
ple, the red rays and the other the violet rays, the mirrors may
be so moved as to reflect the red and the violet rays on one
spot on another screen. The result of this arrangement will
be a mingling of the two colors to produce a color between the
violet and the red usually called purple. And so we may
select any other two colors and thus determine what color is
produced by the mingling of any two or more spectrum colors.
But it is very inconvenient to make such tests, even with the
best apparatus and most favorable conditions." It is possible,
however, to produce practically the same effects by means of
the Color Wheel and the Maxwell Disks. (See the Bradley
books.) If graduated disks are used, the exact proportions
entering into composition may be observed and recorded.

Analysis of Compounds. The colors found in Nature
and Art are generally composite colors, as in leaves, flowers,
ribbons, etc. By combining and adjusting graduated Maxwell
disks, it is possible to imitate the color of leaves, ribbons, etc.,
and thus to ascertain the exact analysis of such color-com-
pounds.

Complements. " As white light is the sum of all color,
if we take from white light a given color, the remaining color
is the Complement of the given color. When the eye has been

96 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

fatigued by looking intently for a few seconds at a red spot on
a white wall and is then slightly turned to the wall, a faint
tint of a bluish green is seen, and this is called the accidental
color of the red, which is supposed to be identical with its
complementary color. Theoretically the complementary of
yellow is a very slight violet blue, and of blue an orange
yellow. The complementary of green is violet red and of
violet a yellow green or green yellow. The complementary
of red is blue green, and of orange a green blue.

Harmonies. " Two colors are said to be in harmony or to
combine harmoniously if the effect is pleasing when they are in
juxtaposition or are used in composition. There are about
five species of color harmony. Complementary colors are har-
monious ; for the other species the student is referred to the
Bradley system.

Broken Colors. " In addition to the spectrum standards
and intermediate hues and their tints and shades, there is an-
other class of colors which in general terms may be called
Broken Colors. A broken color, as a broken red for exam-
ple, is a standard red mixed with neutral gray, that is with
black and white. In still other words, a broken color is a
tint of that color in shadow. In Nature nearly all colors are
broken." The same thing may be said of tapestries, hangings,
carpets, ladies' dress goods, etc. " Ecru," for example, is a
broken orange yellow, whose proportions in terms of 100 are
orange 12, yellow 15, white 17, and black 56.

b. Instruction in Color.

Three things deserve the attention of teachers of color : (1)
Course of Lessons ; (2) The Method of Instruction ; and (3)
The Importance of Color-Lessons.

Course of Lessons. To satisfy the demands of culture
and life, the course of color-lessons should embrace the follow-
ing subjects: (1) The Solar Spectrum; (2) Standard Colors;

OBJECT LESSONS 97

(3) Matching Colors; (4) Mixing Colors; (5) Analysis of
Colors ; (6) Discovery of Complementary Colors ; (7) Har-
monies of Color ; (8) Broken Colors ; (9) Language of Colors ;
and (10) Tests for Color-Blindness.

The Method of Instruction in Color-Lessons. The
nature of the task in color-lessons makes it necessary for
teachers to consider (1) Preparations for Color-Lessons, and
(2) The Recitation-Method in Color-Lessons.

Preparations for Color- Lessons. (1) The necessary materials
for a color-lesson must be procured. This task devolves in
part upon the teacher and in part upon the pupils. Every
school-room in which color-lessons are to be taught should, if
possible, be supplied with prisms, charts, color-wheel and the
Maxwell disks, color-tops and the Maxwell disks, colored
crayons, water colors, colored papers that do not contain
arsenic. Silks, worsteds, etc., should be added. Pupils
should be encouraged to collect colored leaves, worsteds, etc.
When the time for recitation has come, the necessary mate-
rials should be on hand and in working order.

(2) It will be necessary for the teacher to make many ex-
periments with the prism, color-wheel, etc., to be sure that he
can make the desired points in the coming recitations.

(3) The pupils should be required to make such prepara-
tions as the nature of the case may demand. As a rule only
older pupils can be expected to make formal preparations for
color-lessons.

The Recitation-Method in Color- Lessons. (1) All color-
lessons should begin with Observation. The observations
necessary in color-lessons must often amount to experiment.

(2) Induction should follow observation. The possibility
of ascertaining general truths is, indeed, the great reason for
observing colors in these lessons. When, for example, the
pupils have observed the spectrum many times, they should
be led to inquire whether the same results can always be ex-

98 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

pected. The habit of looking for that which will always
happen in mixing colors, in complements, in harmonies, etc.,
should be early developed.

(3) Deduction should follow induction. When the pupil
has found some general truth, he should be led to make it a
life-rule. It is thus that science becomes art.

(4) All the technical terms needed in color-lessons should be
introduced in strict association with that which they signify.
Language lessons should follow.

(5) The teacher should strive to make color-lessons as in-
teresting and useful as possible, thus enlisting the heart, the
imagination, and the will.

(6) For special directions in lessons on complementary col-
ors, harmony of colors, language of colors, and for methods of
testing children for color-blindness, see " Color in the School-
Room," or Calkin's " Manual of Object Teaching."

Importance of Color-Lessons. To appreciate the im-
portance of lessons on color, the reader must understand their
efficiency as a means in culture and instruction.

(1) There is a general agreement among educators that
color-lessons when properly given utilize and improve all the
functions of the mind. (Let the Methods- Student show this
truth in detail.)

(2) The knowledge of color is interesting for its own sake
and a means in the aesthetic and practical interpretation of the
universe.

(3) The culture and knowledge acquired in color-lessons
serve many of the ends of life, and cannot be omitted in our
times without serious disadvantage to millions of people.

(4) All teachers should, therefore, be able to give such les-
sons. The evidence of such ability should be as much in
demand by those who license and employ teachers as the
evidence of ability in the other branches of our curriculum.
Normal schools should offer the most thorough course in colors

OBJECT LESSONS

99

and the method of teaching colors. The task of thus equip-
ping teachers must fall partly on the department of natural
philosophy and manual training and partly on that of peda-
gogy. The most remarkable progress along these lines is
visible everywhere, and the prospects are decidedly encour-
aging.

III. PAETS OF OBJECTS.

Three things deserve our attention in lessons on the parts
of objects : (1) The Course of Lessons ; (2) The Method of
Instruction ; and (3) The Importance of Lessons on the Parts
of Objects.

The Course of Lessons. The following catalogue of
objects and their parts will serve as an illustrative outline of
the work to be done and the domains of Nature and Art from
which to choose the objects to be studied ;

1. Cent.

2. Scissors.

3. Key.

4. Lead Pencil.

(1) Surface.

(1) Shaft.

(1) Shaft.

(1) Wood.

(2) Faces.

(2) Bows.

(2) Ring.

(2) Lead.

(3) Edges.

(3) Limbs.

(3) Barrel.

(3) Head.

(4) MiUing.

(4) Blades.

(4) Lip.

(4) Point.

(5) Impression.

(5) Edges.

(5) Wards.

(5) Number.

(6) Image.

(6) Back.

(6) Grooves.

(6) Trade Mark.

(7) Superscription.

(7) Point.

(8) Date.

(8) Rivets.

5. Bell.

6. Shoe.

7. Chair.

8. Knife.

(1) Handle.

(1) Upper.

(1) Posts.

(1) Handle.

1) Nut.

(2) Binding.

(2) Rounds.

1) Frame.

2) Catch.

(3) Seams.

(3) Back.

2) Rivets.

3) Shaft.

(4) Lining.

(4) Seat.

3) Heel.

4) Ferule.

(5) Strings.

(5) Pillars.

4) Back.

5) Number.

(6) Buttons.

(6) Spindles.

5) Spring.

(2) Cup.

(7) Eyelets.

(7) Slats.

6) Sides.

1) Border.

(8) Vamps.

(8) Balls.

7) Plate.

2) Rim.

(9) Welt.

(9) Beads.

8) Grooves.

3) Edge.

(10) Shank.

(10) Scallops.

(2) Joint.

(3) Tongue.

(11) Counter.

(11) Brace.

1) Pivot.

1) Loop.

(12) Tongue.

(3) Blade.

2) Clapper.

(13) Sole.

1) Sides.

(14) Insole.

2) Notch.

(15) Tip.

3) Back.

(16) Heel.

4) Edge.

5) Point.

6) Maker's Name.

100

PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Wheel.

(1) Nave.

(2) Box.

(3) Spokes.

(4) Arm of Axletree.

(5) Linchpin.

(6) Rim.

1) Felloes.

(7) Tire.

(8) Rivets.

(9) Centre.

(10) Circumference.

13. Orange.

(1) Peel.

1) Rind.

2) White.

(2) Juice.

(3) Pulp.

(4) Seeds.

(5) Eye.

(6) Divisions.

(7) Membrane.

10. Column.

(1) Entablature.

1) Cornice.

2) Frieze.

3) Architrave.

(2) Shaft.

1) Capital.

2) Base.

(3) Pedestal.

1) Cornice.

2) Dado.

3) Plinth.

14. Acorn.

(1) Cup.

1) Stem.

2) Scales.

3) Edges.

(2) Nut.

1) Shell.

2) Kernel.

3) Point.

4) Scar.

5) Membrane.

11. Shell.

(1) Body.

1) Mouth.

2) Lip.

3) Beak.

4) Canal.

(2) Spu-e.

1) Whorls.

2) Sutures.

3) Apex.

15. Insect.

(1) Head.

1) Mouth.

2) Eyes.

3) Feelers.

(2) Thorax.

1) Wings.

2) Legs.

(3) Abdomen.
1) Segments.

12. Flower.

(1) Calyx.
1) Sepals.

(2) Corolla.
1) Petals.

a. Limb.
6. Claw.

(3) PistUs.

1) Stigma.

2) Style.
3; Ovary.

(4) Stamen.

1) Anther.

2) Filament.

3) Pollen.

16. Bird.

(1) Head.

1) Beak.

2) Tongue.
8) Eyes.

(2) Neck.
1) Nape.

(3) Body.

1) Wings.

2) Limbs.

(4) Tail.

The Method of Lessons on Object-Parts. The objects
in question should be observed analytically. The names of
the parts studied should be introduced in the closest connec-
tion with the observation of the parts. The pupil should be
led to inquire into the uses and history of the parts of objects
in their surroundings. " The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of
Common Things," published by Henry Holt & Co., is a most
excellent reference book for teachers. Sheldon's "Object
Lessons/' published by Scribner, Armstrong & Co., should be
in the hands of every teacher.

Importance of Lessons on Object-Parts. (1) There is
probably no better means of cultivating the habit of analytic
observation and 'practical thoughtfulness than these lessons on
the parts of objects. These lessons also develop the habit of
associatins: words and sentences Avith the realities for which
they stand. This is an ideal result.

OBJECT LESSONS

101

(2) Analytic knowledge of objects is a great satisfaction to
most minds, and a mighty stimulus in the formation of the
habit of scientific inquiry.

(3) The habit of analytic observation and the knowledge
thus acquired, are among the best equipments in theoretical
and practical life. Apart from such equipment, theory is often
fancy and practice full of blunders.

IV. QUALITIES OF OBJECTS.

Lessons on the qualities of objects should be added to those
on form, color, and parts. It is probably most convenient to
teach qualities in connection with parts and uses. Three
things deserve our attention at this point : (1) The Course of
Lessons ; (2) The Method of Instruction ; and (3) The Impor-
tance of Lessons on Qualities.

The Course of Lessons. The following catalogue of
qualities will serve as an outline of the course :

Extension.

Resistance.

Sight.

Taste.

Round.

Hard.

Pliable.

Transparent.

Edible.

Square.

Soft.

Elastic.

Translucent.

Pungent,

Angular.

Rough.

Ductile.

Opaque.

Sapid.

Triangular.

Smooth.

Malleable.

Brilliant.

Nutritious.

Rectangular.

Stiff.

Buoyant.

Tasteless.

Cylindrical.

Limber.

Compressible.

Smell.

Emollient.

Spherical.

Light.

Pulverable.

Odorous.

Salient.

Concave.

Heavy.

Fusible.

Aromatic.

etc.

Spiral.

Solid.

Volatile.

Saline.

Serrated.

Liquid.

Inflammable.

Amorphous.

Brittle.
Flexible.
Adhesive.
Tenacious.

Combustible.

Soluble.

Insoluble.

The Method of Lessons on Qualities. Qualities should
generally be studied in connection with parts and uses. The
pupil should be led to experience the qualities which the
teacher wishes to teach. The name should then be intro-
duced. The pupils should also be led to think to what uses

102 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

objects having such qualities can be put just because they have
these qualities. Sheldon's " Lessons on Objects" is the teach-
er's indispensable companion.

Importance of Lessons on Qualities. The study of
qualities is the study of the forces of the physical universe, and
is probably the most practical mental employment.

V. NATURE STUDIES.

The informal study of plants, animals, minerals, etc., just
as we come upon them in Nature, is termed Nature Study.
Such lessons will be the only opportunity of many pupils to
gain an insight into our great and wonderful world. Three
things deserve our attention : (1) The Course of Studies; (2)
The Method of Instruction; and (3) The Importance of
Nature Studies.

The Course of Nature Studies. The course of lessons
in nature studies must be left in great part to the teacher, his
selection of studies depending upon his surroundings. Never-
theless teachers of nature studies should select subjects as much
as possible within some system. To succeed in this attempt
teachers need a training in the natural sciences.

Botany. The habit of observing plants should be culti-
vated in the pupils of our schools. The teacher should strive
to rouse great interest in these observations, leading the chil-
dren to think for themselves, and to come into close touch
with Nature. Our pupils should know the names of the com-
mon plants, flowers, trees, etc., in their neighborhood, in con-
nection with some of the most interesting and useful facts per-
taining to such plants. Miss Youmans' " First Book of
Botany," published by Appleton & Co., is a very excellent
companion for the teacher in this work.

Zoology. The habit of observing the insects, birds, mam-
mals, etc., in the neighborhood, should be developed in our

OBJECT LESSONS 103

pupils. The teacher should strive to rouse great interest in
these studies, leading the pupils to think for themselves and
to come into touch with the heart of Nature. Our pupils
should know the names of common animals, their homes, to-
gether with some of their habits, uses, etc. " Natural History
Object Lessons," published by Heath & Co., is a convenient
companion for teachers.

Note. Courses similar to those just suggested for plants
and animals, should be planned in mineralogy, physiology,
etc. But, although in the teacher's mind there should be some
system of selecting subjects of study, great care must be taken
to keep the lessons from becoming stiff and formal.

The Lesson-Method of Nature Studies. The most op-
portune time of the day should be devoted to the study of
some interesting plant, insect, etc., found by the pupils or the
teacher. These lessons need not come every day, nor at the
same hour, and should never be longer than ten or fifteen
minutes. The greatest freedom of inquiry should be allowed
to pupils, and the teacher should meet these inquiries with
such help as seems best. The pupils should be encouraged to
find out as much as possible by their own efforts. The teacher
must supervise inquiry by means of skilful questions. The
teacher should be prepared to lead the pupils without seeming
to do so formally.

The Importance of Nature Studies. In our days very
great stress is laid on " nature study." Educators insist on
it, that nature study is an invaluable means of culture and a
necessary preparation for the understanding and appreciation
of literature, etc.

The Culture- Value of Nature Studies. In these informal
inquiries into the phenomena of Nature as it presents itself to
experience, the first aim is to discover facts. But inquiry
does not end with the ascertainment of facts ; the pupil is
stimulated to form opinions. Thus it appears that the per-

104 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

ceptive and reflective faculties come into service, but they
come into service in such a way as to require the most faithful
employment of memory, imagination, taste, and will.

The Instruction Value of Nature Studies. The knowledge
acquired in nature studies is charmingly interesting in itself —
a veritable revelation of mysteries — a, glimpse into the great
thoughts of God, of which objects are simply the embodiment.
Moreover, the ideas and facts thus gathered are the proper
data for later scientific conclusions.

The Practical Value of Nature Studies. The habit of ob-
serving plants, animals, stones, etc., together with the know-
ledge thus acquired, will help to fit our pupils for various in-
dustries, such as farming, gardening, care of animals, etc. The
practical results of nature study are alone worth the time they
require.

The Method of Object Lessons. The distinctive feature
of object lessons is the requirement that all inquiry must begin
with sensible observation. This requirement makes it neces-
sary to procure a suitable supply of materials, with which the
teacher must become thoroughly familiar. The recitation
should generally be conducted according to some definite plan
thought out by the teacher in preparing for the recitation.
Generally no formal preparation is to be required on the part
of pupils. For details see the method of lessons on form,
color, parts, qualities, and nature studies.

The Importance of Object Lessons. The importance of
object lessons is generally admitted to be very great. (1) As
pointed out under form, color, parts, qualities, and nature
studies, object lessons, although designed primarily for the
cultivation of the senses, in connection with memory, judgment),
and attention, really call the whole pupil into service. (2)
Then, too, the knowledge acquired in object lessons is " first
hand," and therefore warm with interest for learners. Such
knowledge becomes the mightiest incentive to subsequent scien-

OBJECT LESSONS 105

tific research. (3) The practical results reach into every de-
partment of mental culture and into almost every department
of practical life. (4) The ability of teachers to teach object
lessons effectively should be developed in all schools preparing
teachers.

106 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
CHAPTER III.

READING.

The pedagogics of reading is concerned with two problems
(1) The Nature of Reading ; and (2) Instruction in Reading.

A. THE NATURE OP READING-.

It serves our present purpose to study the nature of reading
under three heads : (1) The " Subject" of Reading ; (2) The
Psychology of Reading ; and (3) The History of Reading.

I. THE SUBJECT OF READING.

The logical phases of reading are pronunciation, comprehen-
sion, and expression.

Pronunciation. Reading presupposes visible records of
thought and sentiment. Reading consists of interpreting these
records and expressing their content. It is necessary, there-
fore, to know the mental value of words and to acquire the
power to pronounce words. The mental value of words is
learned in the process of learning to pronounce. It is evident
(First Principle of Instruction) that pronunciation begins
with imitation and ends in synthesis. Analysis intervenes
when pronunciation begins with whole words. Pronuncia-
tion, i.e., the complete utterance of a word-whole, implies
enunciation, articulation, and accentuation. The distinct utter-
ance of the sounds of a word is termed Enunciation. The
utterance of a word- whole, as " control," is somewhat inter-
rupted by oral rests, or pauses. The resulting parts of words
are termed Syllables. The synthesis of syllables into word-
wholes is termed Articulation. Vocal stress on syllables is
termed Accent.

EEADING 107

Laws of Pronunciation. The tendencies in pronuncia-
tion are probably phonetic laws, though arbitrary usage has
introduced many exceptions into the English language.

Laws of Enunciation. (1) Vowels are generally short in
two or three letter words, except such as end with r; before
two or more consonants the first of which is not r; and in un-
accented syllables, except when followed by w or r. (2) When
a vowel is separated by a single consonant from final e, that
vowel is generally long, and the e silent. When two vowels,
not proper diphthongs, come together, the former is generally
long, and the latter silent. (3) When it follows w and is not
followed by r, a is generally equivalent to short o. (4) When
r separates a from final e, a is circumflexed, and e, silent ; as,
hare. A is also circumflexed before ir, and the i, silent. (5)
Before r, and r with another consonant, a is generally Italian ;
as, car, barn. Such words as war, carry, and parallel, are ex-
ceptions, (6) A is short Italian before ss, sk, sp, st,ff,ft, nt,
and no, except when iv precedes a. (7) A is broad before w,
II, Ik, Id, It, ub, ul, and ught, and when w precedes ar. (8) Before
ign and igh, e is generally equivalent to long a. (9) E is gen-
erally waved before r; as, her. (10) When the liquids are fol-
lowed by en final in an unaccented syllable, e is short ; but
when it follows d, k, p, s, t, v, x, sh, and th, e is generally silent.
(11) When d final follows b, c, d, n, ss, p, and u or ew long,
e is generally short. (12) When il or in final is foimd in an
unaccented syllable, i is generally short. (13) After w and
before k, oo is generally short ; as, wood, took. When w does
not precede or r follow, oo is generally long ; as, mood, soothe.
(14) 0 is generally circumflexed before r, and ught; as, for,
thought. (15) 0 is generally silent in final or without an
accent after c, ck, s, or t (16) When r, sh, and y, separate u
from final e, u is equivalent to oo, and e is silent. (17) Uis
generally equivalent to consonantal w in words and syllables
beginning with qu; in dissyllables and trisyllables where ui

108 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

or ue follows q; in words beginning with eu followed by i;
and in unaccented syllables beginning with g where u is followed
by a, i, or o. (16) Obscure vowels occur only in unaccented
syllables. (17) Cand g are generally soft before e, i, and y ;
and hard before a, o, u, k, I, r, and t. (18) iJ is generally
silent after g and r; after a vowel in the same syllable ; and
before some vowels. (19) L is generally silent between a and
/, a and h, a and m, a and v. (20) N is generally equivalent
to ng hard before h and q, and before c, g, and x hard. (21)
/S'is generally hard after vowels, and all consonants except/,
A;, jp, and t. In sion and sure, it is soft after all consonants.
(22) 2 is generally silent before eh; also, after s in dissyllables
ending in en and le. (23) T/^ is breathed before r, zr, and some
vowels ; also as final consonants, except in verbs and generally
in plural nouns. (24) Th is generally voiced as first letters of
personal, relative, and demonstrative pronouns, and adverbs ;
in plurals of words ending in th; in verbs ending in ih and the;
and in the preposition with or its derivatives. (25) Before any
vowel except o, wh is generally equivalent to hiv. (26) W is
generally silent in words and syllables beginning with tor; after
a, and in the improper diphthong ow. (27) Xis generally hard
before an accented syllable beginning with a vowel, or silent
h, but soft before syllables beginning with a consonant. (28)
There are many less important rules of enunciation and articu-
lation; but space does not permit us to record them here.
Teachers should study the principles of pronunciation more
fully in Worcester's Unabridged Dictionary, or in some good
book on Orthoepy.

Laws of Articulation. (1) The natural rests of the vocal
organs in pronunciation generally determine the syllables, as
in observation. (2) Prefixes and suffixes generally constitute
new syllables, as in improper, contentment, expulsion. (3)
In articulation the etymological composition of a word is
generally less attended to than ease of utterance, though the

EEADING 109

two tendencies often result in the same spelling ; as^ compo-
nent, etymological.

Laws of Accentuation. (1) Derivative words take for a
time, if not permanently, the accent of the original words from
which they are formed ; as, contentment, comprehend. (2)
Ease of utterance has some influence in deciding the place of
the accent ; as, utensil, excellent. (3) In words of two sylla-
bles there is a tendency to accent the first syllable of a noun,
and the last of a verb; as, convert, accent, record. (4) In
words of three or more syllables there is a strong tendency to
accent the antepenult; as, contemplate, eloquent, intricate.
(5) These tendencies of accent have many exceptions by con-
flict with each other. The student should refer to Worcester's
Unabridged Dictionary for a full discussion.

Comprehension. Comprehension in reading, i.e., getting
the thought and sentiment, begins in the process of associating
written with spoken words ; it ends in the sentential associa-
tion of words. That which is orally read, but without think-
ing, is only pronunciation. Intelligible reading is impossible,
as we shall see, for one who does not understand and feel what
he reads.

Expression. " Expression" in reading denotes the eflective
conveyance of thought and sentiment by adaptations in pronun-
ciation, by facial movements, and by gestures. The most im-
portant means of expression in reading, are those adaptations
in pronunciation commonly termed fluency, time, pitch, force,
quality of voice.

Fluency. The ability to recognize quickly and to pronounce
readily the words as they are seen in reading, is termed Flu-
ency. Lisping and stammering are two forms 'of violated
fluency. (1) Lisping is an obstructed utterance of soft s, the
sound given being flat th ; as, thick for sick. (2) Stammering
is an obstructed utterance of syllables. Sometimes it is impos-
sible for one who stammers, to utter the intended syllable at

110 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

all^ and sometimes he repeats the syllable involuntarily ; as,
st, st, stand. The causes and remedies of lisping and stam-
mering will be discussed by and by.

Emphasis. Any impressive way of uttering words or
phrases in reading, is termed Emphasis. There are four
species of emphasis; namely, Stress, Pause, Inflection, and
Time. (1) The extra force with which some word or phrase
is uttered in reading, is termed Stress. Stress may be com-
pound, intermittent, median, radical, or vanishing. (See
Elocution.) (2) When, after uttering some word in a sen-
tence, the reader stops, or allows an interval of time, before he
proceeds, the emphasis is termed Pause. (3) Ascent and de-
scent of pitch in the utterance of a word in reading, is termed
Inflection. (4) Quick, ordinary, and slow utterance of a word
in reading, is termed Time.

The Laws of Emphasis. (1) Words expressing new ideas
are emphasized. (2) Words expressing important ideas are
emphasized. (3) Words expressing contrasted ideas are em-
phasized.

Movement. Every variety of pace in reading a sentence, is
termed Movement. It is the function of movement to express
the reader's feelings.

Pitch. The degree of elevation of the voice in reading, is
termed Pitch. Pitch is high, medium, low, monotonous, or
varied. It is the function of pitch to expr^^ss sentiments.

Force. Degree of stress in reading a sentence, is termed
Force. Force is either loud or intense. The degrees of force
are subdued, moderate, and loud. It is the function of force
to aid the ear of the hearer, and to express strong feeling.

Quality of Voice. Tone of voice in reading is termed Qual-
ity. The qualities of voice are pure, aspirated, guttural,
nasal, and orotund. It is the function of " quality of voice"
to express the various feelings and shades of feelings in
readers.

BEADING 111

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING.

In view of the "subject" of reading (see pages 106 to 110)
we conclude that the mental acts in reading are those involved
in pronunciation, comprehension, and expression.

Pronunciation. (1) The " facts" of pronunciation, whether
they be the facts of imitation, analysis, or synthesis, are learned,
as in other studies, by observation, i.e., by the use of the judg-
ment in connection with the senses. This connection implies
attention, memory, and imagination.

(2) The " principles" (laws) of pronunciation, w^hether they
be those of imitation, analysis, or synthesis, are learned, as in
other studies, by induction.

(3) By deductive application of principles, pronunciation
becomes practical skill.

Comprehension. (1) Which functions of the intellect must
be employed in reading, depends on the contents of the page
in question. (2) The emotional sequences (see the tenth law
of mental activity) in reading, depend on the character of the
intellectual activity. (3) The reader must use his will both in
getting the mental contents of a page and, as we shall see, in
expressing these contents.

Expression. (1) The "facts" of expression in reading,
whether they be those of fluency, time, force, pitch, emphasis,
or quality of voice, must be learned by observation. (2) The
laws of expression, like other laws, are learned by induction,
and (3) applied by deduction.

III. HISTORY OF READING.

The history of reading is conveniently studied under two
heads : (1) The History of Methods of Instruction ; and (2)
Reading in the Curriculum of Schools.

History of Methods. (See pages 121 to 124, and also
Painter's History of Education.)

112 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Reading in Schools. Eeading was a subject of study in
oriental countries. The classical nations began to lay great
stress on reading. The darkness of the Middle Ages obscured
the importance of the subject, but could not drive reading out
of the schools. Reading has become the " great" study in all
modern nations.

B. nsrSTRUOTION IN READING.

The special features of instruction in reading come to view
under the following heads : (1) The order of the teacher's
tasks; (2) The methods of instruction ; (3) The courses of in-
struction ; and (4) The importance of reading.

Order of the Teacher's Task's. In teaching reading, the
tasks, as we know from the nature of the subject and the prin-
ciples of instruction, are as follows : (1) Transition from oral
to visible language, (2) The pupil's emancipation in pronun-
ciation ; (3) Fluency in expression ; and (4) Adequate mental
development.

The Method of Instruction. In reading, as in other
branches, the pupil should be required to observe individuals
of a genus, infer the genus by analogy, and assume the genus
in subsequent study. (Tenth Principle of Instruction in con-
nection with the psychology of reading.) Accordingly, the
vocabulary and sentences of elementary reading should be
representatives of genera. In pronunciation, for example, rep-
resentative words must be found by the teacher and care-
fully taught. "With these representative words, many analo-
gous words must be associated, until the pupil arrives at the
rule to be learned. In this way the inductive method will
become a habit of the pupil, and his emancipation in pronun-
ciation assured. In due time new words will come to the
learner as individuals of some family or species with which he
has already become acquainted. Thus induction finds its sup-
plement in deduction, and only anomalies will trouble the

READING 113

learner. Subsequent lessons should tend to develop accuracy
and rapidity in deductive pronunciation. Of course, anoma-
lies and complexities can be mastered only by special and
persistent drills. Emphasis, movement, quality of voice, etc.,
can all be taught in the same M^ay.

An Ideal Vocabulary. The following graded list of rep-
resentative words is constructed to meet our requirements, and
must be taught in constant connection with the laws of enunci-
ation stated for teachers on pages 107 and 108. The diacriti-
cal marks used in the school must always be added according
to the laws of enunciation just noticed.

Short Vowels. Hat, at, man, an, fat, ax, tack, hand, rang,
sank, flash, mat, egg, peck, men, end, sent, kept, nest, left,
dress, mesh, in, it, ink, splint, fist, with, kiss, sniff, of, on, ox,
pond, moss, lost, up, rub, hunt, must, muff, hush.

Long Vowels. Bake, tape, late, male, name, wave, mine,
pipe, time, file, sole, rope, lobe, fume, mule, flute.

Proper Diphthongs. Boil, toil, boy, toy, out, snout, brown,
town.

Doubled Consonants. Muff, muffs, egg, eggs, bell, bells, hiss.

Doubled Vowels. Book, food, nook, root, soot.

Improper Diphthongs. Speak, break, ceiling, door, four,
blow, day.

Ambiguous Consonants. City, cake, gem, gate, goat, give,
cuffs, silks, desks, tips, rasps, nets, masts, tubs, buds, logs,
oils, teams, runs, ears, fox, except, exact, Xerxes ; cohesion,
mansion, pleasure, tonsure ; of, offer ; fled, passed.

Consonantal Digraphs. Church, laugh, thin, this, chaise,
shall, sing.

Silent Consonants. Comb, doubt ; pledge ; gnat ; ghost,
Rhone, Hannah, honest ; stick, knot ; calf, calm, halve, talk ;
kiln, hymn ; prompt, psalm, pneumonia ; watch, glisten, this-
tle ; wrap, crawl.

Silent Consonantal Digraphs. Yacht, light, bought.

114 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Equivalent Consonants. Cat, kite, quick, stick, chrism ;
sit, lace ; church, watch ; off, trough, pheasant ; joy, gill, sol-
dier ; hallelujah, Julia, yes ; thank, song ; canon ; has, zeal ;
social, nation, precious, chaise, shall ; sit, missed ; vane, of ;
noxious ; flints, chintz.

Intermediate Vowels. Again, around ; pare, fair ; ask, dance ;
tall, law, war ; bar, park ; emit, the ; her ; pique, field ; son,
word, nation ; could, would ; your, tour ; one, once ; for,
morn ; omit, lesson ; full, put ; rude, ruin ; quay, conquest.

Equivalent Vowels. Said, bet ; was, not ; warm, north ;
dollar, father ; sere, spleen, sneak, field ; met, bury ; miss,
been, business, women ; further, work ; her, fir, myrrh ; bite,
fry, lye, high ; son, sun.

Equivalent Vowel Digraphs. Hay, paid, break, they, feign,
freight ; bare, fair, where, their, wear ; oh, toe, float, four, blow,
floor, sew ; moon, moves, crude, drew ; tune, few, juice, due.

Progress in Vocabulary. (1) At first, and for some
months, the vocabulary of reading lessons should consist
mostly of concrete monosyllables whose vowel is sliort, and
the consonants simple ; as, hat, melt, pin, pond, rub. In the
construction of sentences the teacher may introduce, though
sparingly, necessary words that do not belong to this genus.
These words must, of course, be taught arbitrarily. The end-
ings s and es for plural nouns may be introduced. (2) Con-
crete monosyllables whose radical vowel is long, and e the
final letter, should be taken up after considerable work has
been done on short vowel monosyllables. Dissyllables, proper
diphthongs and doubled vowels, as well as doubled consonants,
may be introduced at this stage. The names of the letters and
spelling become appropriate at this point. Print, charts, and
books, should be employed after the first half year. The first
and second courses should together take about one year. (3)
Then lessons on improper diphthongs, ambiguous consonants,
silent consonants, consonantal digraphs, silent consonantal di-

EEADING 115

graphs, equivalent consonants, equivalent vowels and vowel
digraphs, and intermediate vowels, should be gradually intro-
duced. The teacher should not take up any new task until the
pupil has arrived at the principle to be learned. If the pupil
knows the principles of reading, especially those of pronun-
ciation, by the time he has passed once through the fourth
reader, the progress is amply sufficient. His emancipation
from the teacher's supervision in that event will have been
almost accomplished. (Eighth Principle of Instruction.)

I. ELEMENTARY COURSE IN READING.

It is important to know just lohat to do in teaching, and
how to do it, and the reasons. The following outline and ex-
position are therefore submitted to teachers of reading :

The First Year in Reading-.

1 . A suitable oral vocabulary to be built.

2. Transition to visible words.

3. Audible and visible analysis of representative words.

Requisite teaching ability.

4. Visible analysis and audible synthesis of analogous words.

5. Inductive discovery of rules of pronunciation, etc.

6. Words taught built into sentences as fast as practicable.

The teacher's preparation, and record of lessons.

7. The function of diacritical marks, etc.

8. Script letters and the black-board, capital letters.

9. The alphabetic names.

Building- a Suitable Vocabulary. The mode of pro-
cedure in building an oral vocabulary is determined by the
nature of the step. (Second Principle of Instruction.) At
the age of six years, the child knows many objects, qualities,
and actions, but may not know their names in English. In
that event, the words to be taught must be taught as names of
objects, qualities, and actions, jtist as mother does it, i.e., by
perceptive association. If, however, the English language is

116 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

the child's mother-tongue, the appropriate object, quality, or
action, is to be named by him at the teacher's request. The
object, quality, or action, need not be present to the child's
senses, if the teacher knows how to resort to the child's mem-
ories and concepts. This is usually accomplished through
pictures, gestures, questions, and other devices.

Transition to Visible Words. The transition from oral
to visible words can be made as soon as the pupil has learned
the oral word, though it is thought best to defer it for some
weeks. In case of those children whose mother-tongue is
English, the transition is appropriate as soon as the child
comes to school. The mode of procedure is perceptive asso-
ciation. (Second Principle of Instruction.) In other words,
the teacher gets the child to speak some name, and then writes
it, thus presenting it to the pupil's eye. Objects and pictures
add interest to the lesson, but are not essential to the tran-
sition.

Audible and Visible Analysis of Representative Words.
In building the oral vocabulary of representative words, as
well as in the transition to their visible forms, the pronuncia-
tion of the pupil is to be imitative. The reasons are as follows :
(1 ) At this stage of childhood there is not a sufficient aptness
of understanding to warrant deductive efforts so difficult as the
deductive use of principles of pronunciation. (Third Princi-
ple of Education.) (2) At this stage of childhood there is
sufficient imitative aptness and activity to do what is required.
The requirement is therefore appropriate. (First Principle of
Instruction.)

In due time, however, the pupil must be emancipated in
pronunciation, i.e., become able to pronounce new words un-
aided. But the pupil cannot pronounce a new visible word
by himself until he acquires adequate ability in visible analy-
sis and simultaneous audible synthesis. In other words, the
pupil can pronounce any new word, as confuse, by himself,

READING 117

as soon as he can decompose it into con-fuse, and 'unite
the sounds thus indicated into syllables, and these, if there
be more than one, into the word- whole. The decomposing
process is visible analysis ; the uniting process, audible syn-
thesis.

But visible analysis is impossible so long as the pupil does
not know the elements of which the visible word, as rose, is
composed. Therefore (Second Principle of Instruction) the
analysis of audible words, simultaneous with visible analysis,
must be taught until the pupil thoroughly knows all the vis-
ible representatives of the forty or more elementary sounds in
the English language.

Requisite Teaching Ability. The teacher must, of course,
know the true pronunciation of the words which he attempts
to analyze. In other words, he must know the sounds of
which a word is composed, the syllabication, and the accentu-
ation. Moreover, he must know how to supervise and assist
the vocalization of the pupil. It would not do, for example,
to analyze the spoken word is as if it were spelled iss, or the
word voyage, as if it were woyage. Indeed, the teacher needs
a thorough course in Orthoepy and Elocution to accomplish
artistic and satisfactory results in teaching reading. This
training in Orthoepy and Elocution is imperative in selecting
the analogous words to be associated with representatives of
rules, and in supervising the pupil's arrival at the principles
of pronunciation.

Visible Analysis and Audible Synthesis of Analogous
Words. As fast as the pupil learns visible representatives
of elementary sounds, there should be added visible analysis
of new words that consist of these visible representatives. This
visible analysis renders audible synthesis possible, and requires
it as the necessary complement in independent pronunciation.
Audible synthesis, as indicated by the visible analysis, must
therefore always be associated with the visible analysis of new

118 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

words presented diacritically to the pupil's eye. When, for
example, the new word arose is written on the blackboard,
and then divided into a-r ose, the child must be required to
unite the sounds thus represented into syllables, and these, if
there be more than one, into the word-whole. There should
be abundant and long-continued practice in conjoining visible
analysis and audible synthesis. Indeed, it should be con-
tinued for years as a means toward correct and pure articula-
tion, etc.

Inductive Discovery of Rules in Reading. When the
pupil can pronounce unaided a sufficient number of analogous
words purposely associated in recitations, he must be made to
see the law to which these words conform in pronunciation.
The exceptions should be taught with special reference to the
violated rule, and by special drill. The teacher should not
attempt to teach many rules the first winter. Little by little
the pupil will acquire the habit of looking for analogies and
rules. After this inductive habit has come, the teacher's as-
sistance will become less and less necessary. The principles
of syllabication, accentuation, and elocution, are, of course, to
be taught in the same way.

Words Taught Built into Sentences. The representa-
tive words used in reading lessons, and the analogous words,
as well as the necessary arbitrary words, should be built into
sentences. This should be done in all recitations and between
recitations. Between recitations the sentences taught should
be left on the black-board, and copied by the pupils. In due
time the pupil should be urged to construct sentences of his
own. This is what the child does with his oral vocabulary.
It is as natural and interesting to a child to build words into
sentences as it is to build play-houses. (Second Principle of
Instruction.)

The Teacher's Preparation and Hecord of Lessons. The
teacher should build the requisite representative words, and

EEADING 119

analogous words as fast as necessary, as well as necessary arbi-
trary words, into a graded series of sentences. The utmost
care and wisdom is needed in this task. Any teacher who
cannot do this work well is in so far not qualified to teach.
The sentences should be recorded, and used in preparing for
recitations.

The Function of Diacritical Marks. If the English lan-
guage were absolutely phonetic, i.e., if each elementary sound
had its own representative, or letter, and each letter its own
phonetic value, the graphic contrivances termed "diacritical
marks" would be superfluous. Inasmuch as the English lan-
guage is not strictly a phonetic language, diacritical marks are
indispensable in the analysis of visible words. Until the pupil
arrives at the reflective stage of intellectual development, the
diacritical marks, and perhaps also the accent marks, should
be used by the teacher and the pupil. This is especially im-
portant at first. The symbols are to be gradually omitted by
the teacher when he presents old words to the pupil's eye. In
this case the pupil's associative memory is to be pressed into
service, and with good reason ; for pronunciation must eventu-
ally become mechanical, i.e., the pupil must learn to read with-
out the aid of diacritical marks, and without thinking of rules
of pronunciation. But the symbols are to be employed with
all new words, whether presented on the black-board, or found
on charts and in elementary readers. In due time, however,
the pupil must be taught to refer to the dictionary. In other
words, all graphic contrivances should be omitted from fifth
readers, perhaps from fourth readers, and the pupil should
rely on the dictionary. (Eighth Principle of Instruction.)

Script Letters and the Black-Board. It is deemed best
to employ script letters and the black-board for several months
in reading lessons. (1) Writing takes less time, and is not so
difficult for children. The printing that is necessary as an in-
troduction to charts and books, is readily learned by associa-

120 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

tion. (2) The black-board is more interesting to the learner
than charts and books, because it makes movements the object
of attention. It is with the black-board that the teacher can
best show children how to write letters, words, and sentences.
Indeed, the pupil that watches his teacher write these letters
and words day after day, and then imitates them between reci-
tations, on the black-board, slate, or tablet, will learn to write
without much additional instruction. (First Principle of
Instruction.) Teachers should, of course, be good writers.

Capital Letters. Capital letters should be taught only
as fast as needed, and by writing them side by side with the
corresponding small letters, i.e., by association. Very little
explanation will be needed. (First Principle. of Instruction.)

The Alphabetic Names. During the second half of the
first year in reading, the names of the letters should be taught.
Up to this time these names are of very little use, and might
do much harm. As soon as ambiguous letters, i.e., letters
with more than one phonetic value, become frequent, their
names are a convenience in speaking of them. When long
words, silent letters, and other complexities, become frequent,
oral spelling, and therefore the names of the letters, should be
introduced as appropriate supplements. In due time, the
names of the alphabetic letters should be taught in their
order, both backward and forward. This acquisition will be
a convenience in consulting dictionaries, references, cyclo-
paedias, etc.

The only way to learn the alphabetic names is to associate
the name of each letter with its form, and to persevere in this
association until the committing is perfected. Only a few let-
ters should be attempted at a time. It may be done in special
recitations or in connection with exercises in reading.

Between Recitations. Visible analysis, including syllabi-
cation and accentuation, as well as sentence-building, should
be required of pupils between recitations. Old words, or those

EEADING 121

presented to the pupil at the close of a recitation, and after
special drill, are suitable for these purposes. The require-
ment will impress recited lessons and pave the way for the
next recitation. When, in due time, the elementary reader is
put into the hands of the child, he should be required to write
columns of words selected from his lesson according to special
directions.

Note. The method described is appropriately termed the
"• Science Method," from the fact that its requirements are ob-
servation, induction, and deduction. It may also be called the
" Psychological Method," from the fact that it is adapted to
the natural requirements of the mind. (Tenth Principle of
Instruction.) The distinctive features of the method are (1)
the orthoepic choice of an oral vocabulary, and (2) the mode
of discovering orthoepic and elocutionary principles. These
features are in accordance with the principles of instruction,
and constitute the special claims of the system.

The Word Method. The method of transition to visible
words, is sometimes called the " Associative Method," from
the nature of the process, and sometimes the " Word Method,"
from the fact that words rather than letters or sentences are
first studied. Jacotot, a French philosopher and teacher
(1770-1840), was among the first to use this method. The
most prominent early advocate of the method in America was
Professor Webb. For a time it was therefore called the Webb
method. In England it is called the " Look and Say" method,
or, the method of " Reading without Spelling." In itself the
" Word Method" is insufficient. (1) It starts from nowhere
in particular. (2) It develops no power in the pupil. (3) It
aims at no definite results in orthoepy or elocution.

The Alphabetic Method. The old " Alphabetic Method"
is so evidently absurd that it should be forever discarded. By
this method it was required of the pupil to name the letters
of a word, and then to try to pronounce the word. This was

122 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

simply impossible, because these names are not the elements
of which the word is phonetically composed. By this method
the child remained dependent too long on the teacher's super-
vision and assistance in pronunciation. The absurdity of the
method comes home to adults when the letters of some Greek
word are named, and the effort is made to pronounce the word.
Thus, if the reader knows the names of the Greek word l6yQ<^
to be respectively Lambda, Omicron, Gamma, Omicron, and
Sigma, he cannot even begin to pronounce the word ; but if he
knows the sounds of the letters to be respectively 1 o g-o s, he
can pronounce the word at once.

The Phonetic Method. The "Phonetic Method" that
was advocated some years ago, is impracticable, because it re-
quires the pupil to know about fourteen new letters in addition
to our twenty-six, in order to avoid the diacritical contrivances.
The transition to twenty-six letters and the diacritical marks
is necessary after all, and is complicated rather than promoted
by the introductory phonetic system. If, however, the English
language were absolutely phonetic, this system would have
some real merit. It is not likely that the method will ever
be revived.

The Pollard Method. The " Pollard Synthetic Method"
consists of audible and visible synthesis. It begins with sounds,
as a and m, prompting the pupil to find these sounds first in
Nature and then to imitate them. It groups these sounds into
"families," as at, am, ack, and "keys," as 6,/, I, t It em-
ploys a story called the " Johnny Story" to interest the learner.
It resorts to analogies, association, and imagination, as when
the child is required to imitate what the lamb, rooster, dog,
etc., say. It builds words, visible words, pronounces them,
and then recognizes these uttered words as names of objects,
qualities, or actions. It aims from the beginning at the child's
emancipation in pronunciation. It is called the "Pollard''
method after Mrs. Pollard, the author.

READING 123

The method claims the following merits : (1) " It gives cer-
tainty and independence in the recognition of words. (2) It
gives rational scope and aim to diacritical marks. (3) It is a
complete system of vocal training. (4) It promotes distinct
enunciation and perfect articulation. (5) By its simple and
effective rules, it secures proper pronunciation. (6) It equips
pupils for an intelligent use of the dictionary. (7) It provides
for the child those mental operations which are most agreeable
to him. (8) It makes good spellers by its constant use of all
the letters in a word." Leading educators of our own and
other States afl&rm that experiments prove these claims to be
well founded.

The Ward Method. The "rational" method, as Pro-
fessor Ward, of Brooklyn, the originator of the method, calls
it, is not only in full harmony with principles of education,
but also meets all practical difficulties most naturally. The
method begins with a well-chosen list of words used by Eng-
lish-speaking children before coming to school. By means
of the black-board and prepared cards, the spoken words
with which the method begins are carefully converted into
" sight" words and built into sentences. " Phonograms," i.e.,
sight symbols consisting of words, such as mat, cab, etc. ; parts
of words, such as ing, ight, etc. ; and even sentence phono-
grams are taught from the very beginning. By " blend," or
synthesis drills, the children soon acquire the power to pro-
nounce new words independently and accurately. The Ward
phonograms look so much like many, many words that even
the dullest child becomes a fluent reader through their use,
and through the gradual separation of phonograms into let-
ters with diacritical marks the system naturally transfers the
reader to dictionary authority in pronunciation. The Ward
method, like the Pollard method, requires the necessary
books, cards, etc., and trained teachers, but the training is
more easily acquired, and the method commends itself more

124 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

readily to the approval of teachers, parents, and boards of
school directors. While the Pollard method has proved its
claims in many instances, the results attained wherever the
Ward method has been fairlj tried are simply astonishing,
and warrant its general adoption in English-speaking schools.

II. INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN READING.

A great deal of work in orthoepy and elementary elocution,
remains to be done after the first year in reading. Presuma-
bly the child has now mastered the vocabulary of an ordinary
first reader, and has acquired the inductive habit of discover-
ing principles of orthoepy and elocution in a miniature way,
and perhaps he has also acquired the supplementary habit of
pronouncing deductively within a very limited vocabulary.
It is evident, however, that these habits must be strengthened,
and that the complexities of orthoepy and elocution should be
gradually mastered until the pupil's emancipation in reading
has been accomplished. This course should extend over the
second and third year, probably over the fourth, and is appro-
priately termed the Intermediate Course, because it presup-
poses an Elementary Course, and requires a Higher Course as
a supplement. The Intermediate Coiu-se may be outlined as
follows :

The Intermediate Course in Reading.

1. Audible and visible analysis of complex representative
words.

2. Visible analysis and audible synthesis of analogous words.

3. Inductive discovery of orthoepic and elocutionary principles.

4. Language lessons.

6. The attainment of fluency in elocution.
6. Special elocutionary exercises.

Articulation.

Lisping.

Stammering.

READING 125

7. The mental phase of reading.
Proper methods of work.
Lessons graded in vocabulary and contents.
Supplementary reading.
Development of literary habits.

Audible and Visible Analysis of Complex Representa-
tive Words. There should be special drills on Improper
Diphthongs, Ambiguous Consonants, Consonantal Digraphs,
Silent Consonants, Equivalent Consonants, Intermediate Vow-
els, Equivalent Vowels, and Equivalent Vowel Digraphs.
(See " Suitable Vocabulary.")

As in the case of words whose structure is simple, so in these
complex words, there must be audible analysis simultaneous
with visible analysis until the visible representatives become
familiar representatives. The word move, for example, must
be correctly pronounced, analyzed into its component sounds
m 00 v, written on the black-board correctly, and analyzed into
the visible representatives move. The teacher should call
especial attention to the fact that o is equivalent to oo, and
that e is silent.

Visible Analysis and Audible Synthesis of Analogous
"Words. The study of analogous words by visible analysis
and simultaneous audible synthesis should follow the study of
representative words by audible and simultaneous visible anal-
ysis. The words reprove and improvement, for example,
should be studied by visible analysis and audible synthesis
after the word move has been studied by audible and visible
analysis.

Inductive Discovery of Orthoepic and Elocutionary
Principles. Analogous words should be studied by conjoin-
ing visible analysis and audible synthesis until the orthoepic
principle becomes evident. It is in this inductive way, for
example, that the rule of x is to be discovered and stated as
follows : X is generally hard before an accented syllable begin-

126 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

ning with a vowel or silent h, but soft before accented sylla-
bles beginning with a consonant ; as, exact, exhort, exclaim.
The principles of elocution are to be discovered in the same
way. Great pains should be taken to develop these principles
of reading into practical rules. The teacher should not allow
his pupils to forget what they have learned. (Seventh and
Eighth Principles of Instruction.) Exceptions to rules must
be more carefully studied in drills adapted to the purpose.

Language Lessons. In the intermediate course of read-
ing, pupils must be required to write columns of words selected
from the lesson according to special directions, mark these
words according to orthoepic rules, copy sentences, commit
sentences, and construct original sentences. The usual re-
quirements of language lessons are to be respected. The
pupil, for example, should attend to capitals, commas, periods,
spelling, penmanship, neatness, and system.

The Attainment of Fluency in Elocution. It is not the
function of common schools to develop specialists in elocution.
But that fluency which consists of correct and rapid articula-
tion, rapid recognition and ready pronunciation, together with
expressive skill in emphasis, movement, pitch, force, and qual-
ity of voice, are desirable attainments in any education. The
pupils of our common schools should in due time and for
various reasons attain to considerable ability in elocutionary
fluency.

Special Elocutionary Exercises. The following special
phonic drills will be found useful. The diacritical marks
used with the " key" letters are those of the Worcester Dic-
tionary.

Enunciation Drills. 1. a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a(6), a(6), a(e) ;
at, cellar, acute, ape, dare, fast, far, war, was, again, quay.

2. 6, e, e(i), e, e(a), e, e ; rent, the, England, here, they,
where, term.

3. i, i, i, i, i(y), i ; pin, police, infinite, girl, onion, kite.

READING 127

4. o, o, o(u), o, o, 6, o(u), o(wu), o ; not, some, work, omit,
roll, do, could, one, occur.

5. ii, u, ii, u(6), u(i), u, u, u, u ; up, upon, burn, bury, busy,
push, truth, numerate, unite.

6. y, y, y, y ; niyth, chrysanthemum, myrrh, cry.

7. ew(u), ew(u), ew(6), oo(u), 66, oo(6), oo(u), 6i, oy, oti,
ou(6), 6w, ow(o) ; few, crew, sew, book, spool, floor, blood, oil,
toy, proud, four, cow, flown.

8. a, ai, ay, ^a, 6y, 6ig, 6igh ; mate, paid, ray, break, whey,
reign, eighth.

9. are, air, ere, eir, 6ar ; spare, stair, there, their, wear.

10. a, e ; a rat, the cat : a(S), 6 ; said, head : a(6), 6 ; was,
on : a, o; swarm, north.

11. e, ee, ea, ie; mete, screen, speak, fields: S, u(6) ; fret,
bury ; ii, o(ii) ; fur, world : er, ir, yr ; intersperse, firm, myrrh :
i, u(i) ; fit, business.

12. 1, e(i), o(i), u, y ; bin, been, women, busy : i, y, ye, igh ;
ivy, spry, lye, fight : i(y), y ;^ spaniel, yell.

13. 6, a(6) ; knot, what : O, 5, 6a, 6e, 6o, 6u, 6w, e(6)w, oh ;
O, old, goat, toes, floor, four, blow, shew, oh.

14. or, ar; form, swarm: 6, u; sons, funnel: o(wu), wil ;
one, wd : oo(u), o(u), u ; spook, should, full : 66, 6, u, ew(u) ;
moon, prove, rule, strew : oti, o^ ; loud, bowing : 6i, 6y ; foil,
destroy.

15. ii, tie, ui, ew(ii) ; tube, dues, juices, few.

16. b, p, d, t, j, g, V, w, ch, j, ch, s, s, x, :s:, ?, k, g ; big,
pick, dull, tin, jug, gill, voyage, winter, church, joke, choke,
fits, sins, extort, exhort, example, kick, gold.

17. c, k, q, ck, ch ; call, kid, quote, quick, chrism : g, s, z[g) ;
cement, soon, chintz : f, gh(f ), ph(f ) ; fins, laugh, sphinx : j,
g, d( j) ; jug, gill, soldiers : i(y), j(y), y ; Indian, hallelujah,
yonder : n(ng), ng ; think, strong : s, z ; is, zinc ; s(sh), t, c(sh),
ph, sh ; sugar, faction, social, chaise, shine : f(v), v ; of, vows ;
d(t), t; decked, pit.

128 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

18. "He talks earnestly. On either side is the ocean.
She sought shelter. The railroad ran directly across the rapid
river. With a thick thimble Theresa Thornton thrusts thirty-
three thready through the thick cloth."

19. Broth§, truths, moths, triumphs, facts, asps, fifths, pre-
cincts, filched, gulped, depth, parts, harps, steps, girl, learn,
nymph, phial, loiter, rhythm, mug, gaiter, wrist, dagger, stick.

20. The above exercises, and others selected from various
sources, should be studied very carefully. The learner should
speak very slowly at first, increasing his rate of utterance as
he acquires ability.

Lisping. Lisping is due to several causes. Among others
the following causes are common : (1) Association with some
one who lisps ; (2) Childish affectation ; and (3) Defects of the
organs of speech. The causes must be removed if possible.
When it is impossible to remove the causes, as in organic de-
fects, the pupil must be trained to manage his organs of speech
with cultivated tact.

Stammering. Various causes lead to stammering. Among
them are the following : (1) Exuberance of feeling ; (2) Hur-
ried utterance ; and (3) Defects in the nervous system. If
impulsiveness or heedlessness be the cause, the cure of these
faults will be the cure of the stammering. If the trouble lies
in the nervous system, hygienic attention may be the sufBcient
remedy. In all cases of stammering the pupil should be
trained to self-control. In other words, he must learn to sub-
ordinate his impulses, and to overcome his nervousness. The
practical rule must be : Speak slowly. Tact and kindness
will do much in these unfortunate cases.

The Mental Phase of Reading". Reading in its ultimate
sense presupposes and requires intelligence. The pupil must
be taught to think and feel what he reads. In that event he
becomes a treasury of wisdom, and an adept in expressing
thoughts and feelings when he reads to others. The develop-

READING 129

ment of intelligence in reading requires : (1) Proper Methods
of Work ; (2) Lessons Graded in Vocabulary and Contents ;
(3) Supplementary Reading; and (4) The Development of
Literary Habits.

Proper Methods of Worh. (Seventh Principle of Instruc-
tion.) The teacher must insist on study. The pupil must
know the pronunciation and meaning of the words in the les-
son^ must read the lesson until he can do it rapidly and cor-
rectly, and he must try to think and feel the lesson. In the
recitation the teacher should ask many questions, thus stimu-
lating previous study. He should also require the pupils to
tell the story of the lesson, sometimes before and sometimes
after the reading. He may even urge pupils to write the
story of the lesson in their own words, before they come to
recite.

Lessons Graded in Vocabulary and Contents. The lessons
in reading, whether planned by the teacher, as in his intro-
ductory work, or found in readers, should be adapted to the
stages of the pupil's mental development. (Third, Sixth, and
Seventh Principles of Instruction.) The grading of lessons
should therefore be perceptive, conceptive, and reflective. In
other words, the vocabulary and contents of reading lessons
should be mostly perceptive at first, then mostly conceptive,
and finally also reflective.

Supplementary Reading. There should be supplementary
readers in every school-room. At appropriate times it should
be required of pupils to read at sight, or soon after sight, some
paragraph or page that ranks in difliculty with that of his
previous lessons. This requirement, being a variation from
the usual text, will stimulate interest, and cultivate habits of
reading. Books on geography, travels, biography, history,
physiology, etc., may also be used as supplementary reading.
(Fourth Principle of Instruction.)

The Development of Literary Habits. In due time the

9

130 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

pupils of our common schools should be urged to read such
English classics as are suited to their age and progress. The
teacher should strive to cultivate true ideals in literary habits.
It is to be regretted that so few of our boys and girls acquire
the habit of reading good books. In order to induce and
establish this habit there should be a library of suitable books
in every school. This library should, at least in part, be col-
lected by the efforts of the pupils, as directed by the teacher,
in order to cultivate appreciation for books and literary equip-
ments. If possible, every school room should be supplied
with a good periodical and newspaper.

III. IMPORTANCE OF READING.

Reading, as everybody who thinks about it must see, is a
most effective means of culture and instruction.

Culture Value of Reading. Reading is a stimulus to
thought, and a help in the interpretation of the world in
which we live. (See Rosenkranz.) It is through reading that
we can think the thoughts of the " masters" after them, and
that, through a train of corresponding feelings and purposes,
we may live at least in part in their mental world. Thus it
follows that reading becomes a mode of exercising the mind
in all its possibilities.

Instruction Value of Reading. Reading is the key to a
great deal of knowledge at which the mind without such
means would not, and in many cases could not, arrive. The
practical, aesthetic, moral, and religious importance of such
knowledge, makes reading the subject jpar excellence in the
acquisition of an education, and in the great commerce of ideas
of the human race.

Training of Teachers of Reading. In order to do ideal
work in teaching reading, the teacher must evidently be a
good reader in its physical and mental phases. A pedagogical
knowledge of reading is equally important to success.

WRITING 131

CHAPTEE IV.

WEITING.

The pedagogics of writing is concerned with two topics :
(1) The Nature of Writing ; and (2) Instruction in Writing.

A. THE NATURE OP ^WHITING.

In order to arrive at a thorough understanding of the sub-
ject in hand it will obviously be necessary to study the follow-
ing topics : (1) The Physical Act of Writing ; (2) The Psy-
chology of Writing ; (3) The Structure of Script ; (4) Properties
of Writing ; and (5) The History of Writing.

The Physical Act of "Writing-. The physical act of
writing presupposes appropriate positions of the body, and
consists of various movements of the fingers, hand, and arm.
(1) There is some room for choice as to the position of the
body in writing ; we may assume the " front," " right," or
" left" position at the desk. The sitting posture is generally
preferred to the standing posture, the latter serving as a mode
of relief. (2) The movements of the fingers, hand, and arm,
are muscular movements of bone-levers on hinge-joints, wrist-
joints, and ball-and-socket-joints.

The Psychology of Writing". The learner becomes ac-
quainted with the positions, movements, and characters, by
observation; he discovers the general truths of writing by
induction, and reduces them to rules of practice by deduction.
The most important feature of writing is the subjection of the
physical organism to the mind. The various positions and
movements in writing require very strict attention at first.
In time these movements become habits, and require only a
minimum of voluntary effort.

132 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The Structure of Script. The characters, or letters, of
writing are composite structures consisting of simple and com-
plex lines.

Species of Letters. The script characters which are em-
ployed to represent the elementary sounds of our language, are
termed Letters. The two species of script letters in vogue are
the small and the capital letters. Small letters are employed
in the body of words, while capitals denote distinctions, as in
proper names or head-lines.

The Form-Elements of Script. Script letters are combina-
tions of form-elements, i.e., combinations of straight lines,
angles, and curves. (1) The form-elements of the various
systems of script are comparatively few. Spencer, for exam-
ple, employs only seven principles, the straight line ( | ), the
right curve (— ^), the left curve (^— ), the loop (/), the direct
oval (0), the reversed oval (q), and the capital stem (o/)- The
height, width, and parts, of every letter are definite quantities
according to the system adopted. (2) The " down-stroke" of
letters is probably the most important element of any system
of script, since upon its direction depend, as statistics show,
both legibility and rapidity in writing, as well as the physical
welfare of the writer. In Spencer's slanting system the down-
stroke meets the writing-line at an angle of 52 degrees, and
determines the general slope of the letters. In the various
vertical systems the down-stroke meets the writing-line at
right angles, and determines the general character of the let-
ters. The connecting lines are next in importance, since upon
them, too, depend both legibility and rapidity in writing, as
well as the beauty of the finished letters. In Spencer's system
the connecting lines meet the writing-line at an angle of 30
degrees, while in vertical writing the angle must be larger to
add to the general effect of the vertical idea. The actual slope
of connecting lines is not quite the same in all vertical sys-
tems, either to shorten connective curves in the interest of

WRITING 133

rapidity, or to add to the beauty of the finished letters. The
initial and the terminal strokes are also of importance in any
system of writing, since economy of space and time as well as
the beauty of the finished letters must depend on these strokes.

Desirable Properties of Writing-. " Writing is a secon-
dary power of speech, and they who cannot write are in part
dumb." In other words, writing is a species of language. As
a mode of language, writing should be legible, accurate, rapid,
and beautiful, and the physical act should not impair the
health of the writer. Right habits should, therefore, be devel-
oped from the beginning.

Legibility. " Scrawls that cannot be read may be compared
to talking that cannot be understood ; and writing difficult to
decipher, to stammering speech." Legibility is also important
to the health of the reader's eyes. It is accordingly the quality
preeminent from first to last.

Accuracy. All the form-elements required by the adopted
system of writing should be present in perfection in script let-
ters. Apart from the bad moral efiect of carelessness in these
respects, inaccurate letters are likely to be mistaken for others,
so that inaccurate writing is more or less illegible. Imitative
accuracy will do at first ; theoretic accuracy should follow.

Rapidity. Beginners should write slowly, so that the hand
may become the servant of the will. The moral development
of the writer will be promoted by such exercises. The move-
ments in writing should, however, become more and more
rapid in the interests of economy, but always in subordination
to the will until perfect habit develops.

Beauty. Legibility, accuracy, and rapidity are requirements
of utility. The union of the useful and beautiful is universally
desirable. Taste for artistic penmanship develops into taste
for art in general, and stimulates the finer nature of the writer.

The Requirements of Hygiene. (1) The position of the body
in writing, and the movements of the fingers, etc., should be

134 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

the very best. Right habits should be developed from the be-
ginning. (2) That system of writing which is best for the eyes
of readers should, all other things being equal, be adopted by
our schools.

The History of Writing-. There are two subjects to study
in this connection : (1) The Successive Tendencies in Writing ;
and (2) The Claims of the Tendencies.

The Tendencies in Penmanship. The tendency to write up-
right letters was the earliest tendency in the history of writing.
" It was not until the beginning of the sixteenth century that
the sloping or Italian style was invented by Aldus Manutius
of Venice. It soon became a fashionable fad and spread rap-
idly over all Europe. Probably th'e best reason for this was
that writing in those days was to a great extent in the hands
of professional scribes, and, as the slanting style was peculiarly
favorable to the development of the new art of flourishing, it
soon supplanted the old vertical mode." " In the course of
time, when education became the common possession of all,
slanting writing retained its supremacy unchallenged. No
attempts were made to return to vertical penmanship until a
few years ago, when an investigation of the causes of curvature
of the spine and imperfect vision so common in school-children
was instituted in Germany, with the result that eminent medi-
cal authorities attributed the greater part of the evil to the
position of the body and eyes necessary in writing a slanting
hand. At about the same time teachers began to awake to
the fact that the writing of their schools was anything but
satisfactory." " With the assurance from the medical profes-
sion that slanting penmanship produces deformity and imper-
fect vision, and from educational experts that vertical penman-
ship is far superior to sloping, it would appear that vertical
writing is to be the writing of the future. It has already
been extensively introduced on the Continent and in England,
and has recently aroused absorbing interest in this country."

WRITING 135

The Merits of Vertical Writing. The advantages of vertical
writing are as follows : (1) It is better for the health of pupils.
The required position is natural and easy, since the back must
be straight and square, and both eyes must be exercised equally.

(2) Vertical writing is more legible, as can be shown by a
diagram of upright and slanting lines. (See Merrill's Verti-
cal Penmanship.) This claim is confirmed by the fact that
books are commonly printed not in Italic, but in plain, up-
right letters. The fact that English civil-service examina-
tions ask for upright writing is an additional proof.

(3) Vertical writing is more rapid. There is less distance
for the pen to travel in making vertical strokes than in making
slanting strokes of the sanie height. The difference between
the down-strokes of vertical penmanship and those of slant-
ing penmanship is as great as that between the perpendicular
and the hypothenuse of a right angled triangle. There is,
therefore, a considerable gain of time in vertical writing.
Telegraph receiving operators avail themselves of this advan-
tage almost unconsciously.

(4) Vertical writing is more economical. Its shorter down-
strokes save time and paper. The greater legibility of verti-
cal writing, as well as its greater adaptability to learners, must
also be regarded as matters of economy.

(5) Vertical writing is easier to teach and learn. The po-
sitions of the body, hands, and eyes are perfectly natural to
the child, and consequently do not have to be painfully incul-
cated. It is unnatural for a child to write with slanting
down-strokes. Hence it will cost both teacher and pupil
many hours of needless labor to attain uniformity in these
strokes. Statistics show that children have better success in
the vertical efforts, and that this success is a constant stimulus
to their efforts.

The Merits of Slanting Writing. There are several things
to be said in favor of the slanting system of writing : (1) The

136 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

possibility of remarkable beauty belongs exclusively to slant-
ing writing. The history of slanting penmanship is incontro-
vertible evidence on this point. There is an irresistible charm
in the gracful poise of the classical slant. The vertical letter
is stiff in comparison. If the future history of penmanship
is to be that of a fine art, as the rapid adoption of short-hand
seems to indicate, the slanting system deserves a place in
special training.

(3) The transition of schools to the vertical system is diffi-
cult. The amount of time and labor needed to break higher
grade pupils into the new habit, is an important consideration.
Then, too, teachers need special training in vertical penman-
ship in order to do good work. These objections have, how-
ever, been satisfactorily met in hundreds of schools, and the
probability is that the change will rapidly become universal.

B. INSTRUCTION IN WRITING.

The study of the nature of writing suggests the following
topics for consideration : (1) Courses of Writing ; (2) Methods
of Instruction ; and (3) The Imj^ortance of Writing.

Courses of Writing-. In obedience to the law of the pupil's
natural development, and in accordance with the demands of
life, there should be three courses in writing : (1) The Ele-
mentary Course ; (2) The Intermediate Course ; and (3) The
Higher Course. The elementary course is designed to develop
mechanical ability ; the intermediate course, to correct and per-
fect practical ability by adding theory ; the higher course, to
develop special tastes, or to fit for special vocations. (See
Principles of Instruction.) The common school owes her
pupils a training in the first two courses ; the higher course
belongs to special schools, such as business colleges, etc. The
elementary course should be covered in two or three years ;
the intermediate course, in from four to eight years, the time to
be determined by circumstances. The end in view in the ele-

WRITING 137

mentary course is imitative skill ; in the intermediate course
theory ; and in the higher course excellence. The designs are
in harmony with the stages of possibility in pupils as ascer-
tained by experiments, and they are in accord with the needs
of life.

I. THE ELEMENTARY COURSE IN PENMANSHIP.

The questions to be considered under this heading are two :

(1) The Tasks of the Elementary Course, and (2) The Methods
of Elementary Lessons.

The Tasks of the Elementary Course. The first lessons
in writing are to be given in connection with reading, spelling,
language lessons, etc. (1) The pupil must be required to copy
words. (2) There must be supplementary lessons on separate
letters. (3) Right habits of position, movement, spacing, etc.,
must be developed from the beginning.

The Methods of Elementary Lessons. In the elemen-
tary exercises of penmanship, the pupil must be required to
observe and copy. (1) The little words that are read in ele-
mentary language lessons, should be correctly written on the
board in sight of the pupils. The pupil should be required
to observe what the teacher does, and then try to write the
word on the slate. At first it may be necessary to guide the
little hands, but they will soon learn to trace legible copies.

(2) As soon as the pupils can write words legibly, lessons on
letters should begin. The small letters should of course be
taken up first, and in the order of their increasing diffi-
culty. (See this order, pages 141 and 142.) The lessons on
capital letters may begin before all the small letters have been
taught, but also in their order of difficulty. The letter to be
taught should be written several times on the board, larger at
first and smaller afterwards, the pupils observing what the
teacher does, and then copying the letters on their slate, or on
the board. A great deal of such practice can be readily com-

138 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

bined with reading lessons. Children should sometimes be
requested to write on paper, but the pen and the copy-book are
hardly appropriate before the third year of school. (3) Right
habits of position, movement, spacing, slanting, etc., are best
taught at first by example. In other words, the position,
movement, etc., must be illustrated by the teacher and copied
by the pupil. Failures are best corrected by kindly sugges-
tion. The teacher must see to it that children do not write
too fast, and that they do neat work. He should, however, be
thoroughly judicious in pointing out mistakes and imperfec-
tions, never losing his temper or hurting the feelings of pupils.

II. THE INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN PENMANSHIP.

The Tasks of the Intermediate Course. The lessons of
the intermediate course in penmanship should begin the third
or fourth year of school, and should combine theory and prac-
tice. The following subjects should be mastered in their order :
(1) Positions at Desk, (2) Holding the Pen, (3) Finger Move-
ment, (4) Fore-arm Movement, (5) Combined Movement, (6)
Whole-Arm Movement, (7) Lines, (8) The Form-Elements,
(9) Small Letters, (10) Capital Letters, (11) Spacing, (12)
Shading, and (13) Arabic Figures.

The Methods of Intermediate Lessons. (1) In the in-
termediate exercises of penmanship, the pupil needs practice
paper, a copy-book suited to his grade, a good pen, good ink,
and a suitable desk. (2) It is convenient, and at the same
time effective, to teach a whole class at once. Two, or, in
some cases, three classes are enough for any school. (3) In
this course accuracy and beauty are the right ideals, and great
effort should be put forth to develop taste for these ideals. (4)
There should be a system of signals, and everything should be
done in the most orderly way. The recitation may begin with
(1) Position at Desk, (2) Arrange Books, (3) Find Copy and
Adjust Arms, (4) Open Inkstands, (5) Take Pens. The reci-

WRITING 139

tation may close with (1) Wipe Pens, (2) Front Position, (3)
Pass Pens, (4) Pass Books, (5) Close Inkstands. (See "The-
ory of Spencerian Penmanship.")

Position at Desk. (1) The position for writing should be a
convenient one, allowing the easy action of the right arm
and hand. In sitting at a desk or table there is little choice
between what are known as the "Left-side," "Front," "Right-
oblique," or " Right-side" positions. They are all practised
by writers ; but it is well for the sake of order and uniformity
in a class that all the pupils should observe the same position.
Whichever method is adopted, those who do not Avish to be-
come hollow-chested or round-shouldered, should learn to sit
easily upright, and keep the shoulders square.

(2) The " Front" position is most appropriate in classes.
Pupils should be required to " Sit directly facing the desk,
near to it, without leaning against it, with the feet level on
the floor, and the fore arms resting lightly on the desk in front
at right angles to each other. Let the right arm rest lightly
on the muscles forward of the elbow — keep the wrist above
the paper, and rest the hand lightly on the nails of the third
and fourth fingers, which should touch the paper directly
under the palm. Adjust the book so that the right arm will
be at right angles to the lines on which you are to write.
Hold the book in place with the fingers of the left hand."

Holding the Pen. Pupils should be required to " Take the
pen between the first and second fingers and the thumb, ob-
serving, 1st, that it crosses the second finger on the corner of
the nail ; 2d, that it crosses the fore-finger forward of the
knuckles ; 3d, that the end of the thumb touches the holder
opposite the lower joint of the fore-finger ; 4th, that the top
of the holder points toward the right shoulder ; 5th, that the
wrist is above the paper ; 6th, that the point of the pen comes
squarely to the paper."

Finger Movement. (1) The action of the first and second

140 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

fingers and thumb, is termed the " Finger Movement" ; it is
used chiefly in the upward and downward strokes. (2) Pupils
should be required to make this movement deliberately, count-
ing 1, 2, 1, 2, etc., or saying upward, downward, etc.

Fore-arm Movement. (1) " The Fore-arm Movement con-
sists in the action of the fore-arm upon its muscular rest near
the elbow; the hand gliding on the nails of the third and
fourth fingers. It may be employed in making strokes in any
direction, but is especially adapted to carrying the pen right-
ward, and leftward, across the paper, and is most efficient in
combination with the Finger Movement."

(2) Pupils should be required to practise this movement in
combination with the finger movement until the complex pro-
cess becomes almost automatic. The teacher must be able to
show the pupil what to do, and should insist on right habit.

Combined Movement. (1) " The Combined Movement con-
sists in the united action of the fore- arm, hand, and fingers,
the fore-arm acting on its muscular rest as a centre, and
sliding the hand on the nails of the third and fourth fingers,
while the first and second fingers and thumb extend and con-
tract in forming upv/ard and downward strokes."

(2) " This movement answers the requirements of business
better than any other : it combines the free untiring sweep
of the fore-arm, with the delicate shaping powers of the fingers,
securing ease and accuracy."

(3) The teacher should carefully study this movement as
explained in special text-books, in order that he may under-
stand what he tries to teach. He should illustrate the move--
ment again and again, until all in the class can make the
movement.

Whole-arm Movement. (1) " The Whole-arm Movement
consists in the use of the whole arm from the shoulder, the
elbow being raised slightly from the desk, and the hand
sliding on the nails of the third and fourth fingers."

WKITING 141

(2) " The capitals ^ C^ ^ O^ etc.^ may be traced

with the whole-arm movement, and the strokes regulated by
counting, as indicated by figures in copy-books. This move-
ment is mainly used for striking large capitals. Its practice is
highly beneficial, as it brings into free action all the muscles
from shoulder to fingers."

Form Lessons. Preparatory to lessons on the structure of
the various letters, there should be special lessons on lines,
angles, etc. (1) Pupils should be required to make and de-
scribe a line, a straight line, a curve line, a right curve, a left
curve, a horizontal line, a vertical line, a slanting or oblique
line, and parallel lines.

(2) Pupils in writing must be taught what an angle is, and
how to measure it in degrees of a circle. Teachers of slant-
ing penmanship must make their classes familiar with the
angle of 52 degrees, or Spencer's Main Slant, and with the
angle of 30 degrees, or Spencer's Connective Slant. Teach-
ers of vertical penmanship must see to it that the pupils know
the right angle.

(3) The teacher must take pains to show the pupils how to
combine strokes in forming letters ; how to make the " short
turn," the " oval turn," the " loop," the " angular turn," the
" direct oval," the " reversed oval," etc.

Fwm Elements. The pupil of any system must be taught to
make and describe the constituent parts of letters, and to ana-,
lyze letters, small and capital, into these elements.

The Small Letters. The small letters should be taken up in
the following order : (1) The thirteen " short" letters, namely,

i^], i^, W-, 'ft', m, -v-, a;, o-, a, e, c, i^, <S.

(2) The four " semi-extended" (two spaces) letters, namely,
/, e/, d, a. (3) The nine " extended," or loop letters (three
spaces), namely, J, J, /, ^^; //// p /•

142 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

These letters should be studied, practised, and reviewed,
until each one becomes perfect.

The Capital Letters. The capital letters should be taken
up in the following order : (1) The four " Fifth Principle"

letters, namely, (^, 8, Q, '^. (2) The nine "Sixth Prin-
ciple" letters, namely, %, QtM.;^.(^, Q{, ^. c/^.
(3) The thirteen " Seventh Principle" letters, namely, ^-^^ (;^

C^.S-,:^,!:^, J^ -ef, ^. j:^, 9, ^, ^.

These letters, too, must be studied, practised, and reviewed
until they are mastered.

Spacing. The teacher must see to it as much as possible
that the space between letters, words, and sentences, is under-
stood and respected by pupils. The teacher is referred to the
copy-book explanations.

Shading. Beginners in penmanship should not be taught
"shading." When pupils have acquired artistic skill in
writing letters without shading, it is time enough to begin
lessons on that subject. The five species of shading as seen in
the letters /, d, *, fj and (y^ should of course in due time
be taught.

Arabic Figures. Lessons on the Arabic figures

/, ^, 3, 4, 5, 6, /, <$, ^, 0,

should be given in connection with the small letters, and accu-
racy as well as neatness should be developed into habits.

III. HIGHER COURSES IN PENMANSHIP.

Inasmuch as it is not the duty of the common school to
oifer higher, or special, courses in penmanship, the details of
instruction in such courses need not be considered in this
treatise. The special courses in penmanship offered in special
schools are as follows : (1) Business Penmanship ; (2) Ladies'

WRITING 143

Penmanship ; and (3) Ornamental Penmanship. The special
requirements of business, etiquette, and decorative art, deter-
mine the tasks and methods of such courses. (See the Ninth
Principle of Instruction.)

IV. THE IMPORTANCE OF PENMANSHIP.

The unsightly, hurried scrawls that are so common in all
species of writing, are greatly to be deplored. Such writing is
to be deplored because : (1) The discipline of penmanship has
a moral and practical radius, and (2) Artistic penmanship is a
desirable instrument in business and social papers.

The Discipline of Penmanship. The habits and tastes
cultivated in the efforts to master penmanship, assert them-
selves as habits and tastes in the moral and practical life of
pupils. In other words, the habits of self-control, attention,
accuracy, and artistic finish, which pupils must cultivate in
order to master penmanship, are likely to become their habits
and tastes in all activities.

The Desirability of Artistic Penmanship. Except in
cases of deliberate acting, most persons photograph their ordi-
nary character in their handwriting. This fact has important
consequences. (1) Employers look for self-poise, energy,
taste, and manliness, in their employees. These characteris-
tics, and their opposites, as just pointed out, are often de-
tected in the letters of applicants for positions, and the em-
ployer makes up his mind accordingly. School directors, for
example, may not themselves be able to write well, but many
of them know how important it is that the teacher of their
, children should write a good hand, and, all other things being
equal, they prefer the good penman.

(2) What is true of business intercourse is equally true of
written social intercourse. We think better of our corre-
spondents when they write a legible and artistic hand. This
preference seems to rest on the belief, though it may never

144 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

have been put in so many words, that our friends are likely
to resemble their handwriting in other respects and in their
relations to us.

The Requisite Training for Teachers of Penmanship.
It is obviously the duty of the common school to cultivate
penmanship both for its disciplinary and its practical worth.
Teachers have no moral right to neglect either their own hand-
writing or that of their pupils. The consequences of such
neglect are too difficult to correct, and too far-reaching in the
pupil's career. It is requisite, therefore, that teachers under-
stand (1) The theory of penmanship, and (2) The theory of
teaching penmanship. In addition to such understanding, it
is necessary that teachers have artistic ability in penmanship.
Indeed, a knowledge of higher courses in penmanship, and
training in each of these courses, so far as possible, develops
an appreciation for the art of penmanship, and leads to an
ability in it, that fit teachers to work from better standpoints
and to much better advantage. The Normal Schools espe-
cially owe it to the public schools to send out teachers that are
able to write and to teach writing.

SPELLING 145

CHAPTEE V.

SPELLING.

The pedagogics of spelling is concerned with (1) The
Nature of Spelling, and (2) Instruction in Spelling.

A. THE NATURE OF SPELLING.

It will serve our purpose to study (1) The History of Eng-
lish Orthography, (2) The Physical Structure of English Words,
and (3) The Psychology of Spelling.

The History of English Orthography. Among the
things that have shaped our orthography are (1) The Ori-
gin of the Alphabet, (2) The Norman Conquest of Eng-
land, (3) The Practice of Authors and Copyists, (4) The
Invention of Printing, and (5) The Publication of English
Dictionaries.

Origin of the Alphabet. " Before or during the rule of the
Hyksos in Egypt, the Phoenician settlers in the Delta borrowed
from the Egyptians twenty-two hieratic characters, Avhich they
passed on to their Asiatic kinsmen. These characters re-
ceived new names, and became the Phoenician alphabet. Now,
wherever the Phoenicians went, they carried this alphabet as
^ one of their exports.' " (See " Current Literature," ISIarch,
1897, for another interesting account of the origin of the
alphabet.) " It was through the Phoenicians, probably, that the
Greeks received it ; the Greeks passed it on to the Romans,
and the Romans gave it to the German peoples. In this way
did our alphabet come to us from Old Egypt." In this his-
torical process some of the original characters were dropped,
the phonetic value of others was greatly ciianged, and some

10

146 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

new letters were introduced. Thus it came that some letters
represent more than one sound, and that the same sounds
often have more than one alphabetic representative.

Tlie Norman Conquest of England. The Roman mission-
aries were the first to reduce the Anglo-Saxon language to
writing. "They used the Roman letters, in nearly their
Roman value, and added new characters for the sound of a in
fat, th in their (dh), th in thine, and w." In the fusion of Nor-
mans and Saxons, after the Norman Conquest, neither party
could pronounce the words of the other party correctly, and,
in spelling these mispronunciations, they introduced many
lamentable irregularities.

The Practice of Authors and Copyists. Before the invention
of printing, authors spelled words very much as the mood of
the moment dictated. There was no authorized orthography
for any word. Thus it happened that words were spelled
differently by different authors, and that the same author
spelled a word in more than one way. This was true even
of proper names, such as Leicester, Villers, Mainwaring, etc.
Lower states that the word Mainwaring was spelled in one
hundred and thirty-one different ways. To make the matter
worse, the scribes that multiplied manuscripts, were careless
in spelling. There were some authors, it is true, who tried to
prevent these evils and to correct them. " The spelling of the
Ormulum, which was written in the thirteenth century, though
strange and cumbrous, is remarkable for its regularity ; and
the author urges his copyists to follow his orthography with
the utmost exactness. Chaucer, also, more than a century
later, carefully revised and corrected his own works ; and he
enjoined upon his scribe to ' write more trew' that which was
entrusted to him, saying that he was obliged ' it to correct and
eke to rubbe and scrape,' because of the negligence and haste
with which it had been copied." The orthography of Shake-
speare's times, though so much later than that of Chaucer, was

SPELLING 147-

far from settled ; even the name of the great poet was written
more than thirty different ways.

The Invention of Printing. When, about the middle of the
fifteenth century, printing by means of movable types, was in-
vented, the wretched spelling of authors unfortunately became
a somewhat fixed orthography. To make the matter worse,
printers often spelled words as prompted by convenience of
space, now adding a letter, now omitting it, to suit the partic-
ular case.

The Publication of Dictionaries. At last the era of lexicog-
raphers was ushered in. The most distressing irregularities
of spelling began to disappear, and conformity to orthographic
principles took their place. Of course, it was impossible to re-
duce chaos to order at once, but Dr. Johnson's celebrated dic-
tionary, published in 1755, settled usage definitely in favor of
some one of the numerous forms in which words were written,
and thus removed the cause of confusion. In other words,
Johnson's dictionary became a standard of English orthog-
raphy. The great lexicographers, Noah Webster and Wor-
cester, followed in 1828. They introduced orthographic
changes that met almost universal approval. First, they
restored primitive spellings in order to reveal etymological
affinities, and second, they reduced as much as possible the
number of anomalies and special cases. Notwithstanding the
improvements made by Johnson, Webster, Worcester, and
other lexicographers, English orthography continues to dis-
tress those who must use it.

Spelling Reforms. Many attempts have been made to in-
troduce a system of phonetic spelling, i.e., a system in which
each elementary sound of a word is represented by its own
alphabetic sign. Among the first to attempt a phonetic sys-
tem was Sir Thomas Smith (1568), Secretary of State to
Queen Elizabeth. Eminent scholars in the times of Charles I.
introduced orthographic changes, and tried to popularize pho-

148 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

netic spelling ; but, inasmuch as these efforts did not rest on
settled principles, the effects were not permanent. In modern
times, Dr. Franklin invented a phonetic system, but it was
imperfect, and he scarcely used it himself except in a brief
correspondence with a friend. Among recent attempts are
those of A. J. Ellis, I. Pittman, E. Jones, and A. M. Bell.
The system of Mr. Bell has been used in scientific treatises,
but seems not to be gaining any permanent hold. Many lead-
ing philologists of England and America are advocates of re-
form in orthography. Dr. March, Professors Whitney and
Haldeman, of America, and Max Miiller, Ellis, and Jones, of
England, are some of the foremost advocates of spelling re-
form. The Funk & Wagnalls " Scientific Alphabet" prob-
ably indicates and paves the way for the most practicable re-
form in spelling. By means of a clever diacritical system and
two additional letters, our present alphabet becomes the means
of an almost perfect phonetic orthography.

Such a reform is certainly desirable. It will save time and
labor in schools; it will save time, labor, and expense, in
printing. Moreover, the proposed changes in orthography
are not so violent as to seal the volumes of the old-style orthog-
raphy.

Physical Structure of English Words. A language in
which each elementary sound is represented to the eye by a
special letter, is termed Phonetic. English orthography, as
we have seen, is very irregular. " This irregularity consists
in the use of silent letters, and in the use of different letters
and combinations to represent the same sound. Many letters
are pronounced in several different ways, while the letters or
combinations of letters for a single sound, in some cases
amount to scores. Many words of no more than two sylla-
bles may be spelled in several thousand different ways, by the
use of combinations actually employed in other words of the
language. The word scissors, it is computed by Ellis, may be

SPELLING 149

thus written in nearly six thousand different ways. Indeed,
it may be truly said that we possess the worst alphabetic spell-
ing in the world. English orthography is ' the opprobrium
of English scholarship' ; it is the greatest hindrance to educa-
tion and to the spread of our language." And yet (see page
151) "over nine-tenths of our words can be classified; that
is, the sounds of the letters can be determined by their rela-
tion to others in the word."

The Psychology of Spelling'. The physical structure of
words determines the necessary mental acts in spelling.

Oml Spelling. (1) The orthography of many words must
be learned, as other " facts" are learned, by observation, i.e.,
by the use of judgment in connection with the senses. Atten-
tion makes any word, however irregular it may be, a possession
of memory. Imagination is a strong reinforcement of memory
both in learning and using the letters of a word. (2) The
"rules" of spelling (see page 151) must be learned by induc-
tion, and (3) used by deduction.

Written Spelling. The spelling of a written word may, of
course, be learned " by ear" alone, provided one has already
learned the alphabetic letters, for then the imagination will
furnish a sight-substitute ; but commonly the eye is the most
effective means. The most effective way of learning the or-
thography of a word is to write the word, thus reinforcing
sight by muscular sensation. This combination in learning to
spell a word will generally insure its correct use in composi-
tion.

B. INSTRUCTION IN SPELLING.

The topics to be considered under the head of " Instruction
in Spelling," are as follows : (1) The Preparation of a Spelling
Lesson ; (2) The Recitation of a Spelling Lesson ; (3) Supple-
mentary Devices in Spelling ; (4) Relative Merits of Written
and Oral Spelling ; (5) Principles of Instruction ; (6) Course
of Lessons ; and (7) The Importance of Spelling.

150 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

I. THE PREPAEATION OF A SPELLING LESSON.

That which is to be learned in this case necessitates associa-
tive memory reinforced by rules as much as the nature of the
subject admits. (See the Sixth and Tenth Principles of In-
struction.) Associative memory as a process begins in obser-
vation. Hence it follows that in order to master words in
spelling the pupil's tasks are three : (1) Observation ; (2) E,ec-
ollective Practice ; and (3) The Discovery and Use of Rules.

Observation. Perfect observation is indispensable to true
associations. Persistent associations, i.e., abiding memories, are
assured by multiplying association-tracks in observing that
which is to be remembered. (See Summation of Stimuli, page
25.) Thus we see that pupils should study a word not only
with the eye, but also with the hand, ear, and voice. That is
to say, the pupil should observe the spelling of a word (1) by
looking at it critically, regarding its letters, syllables, and the
word as a picture-whole, (2) writing it, (3) comparing it with
the word copied, (4) naming the letters in their order until it
becomes an easy and accurate process, (5) pronouncing the
syllables successively and as a whole. The teacher must make
sure that pupils acquire the habit of thus observing words.
The black-board and slates, or tablets, should be used.

RecoUective Practice. In order to assure persistent asso-
ciations, the learner dare not be content with the observation
just described. He must repeatedly write the words which he
has studied, name the letters of the word of which he thinks, or
spell it orally at some one else's dictation, comparing the re-
sults to see if the attempted associations be true. This work
dare not be neglected except at the risk of losing what was
gained only by hard work at first. (See Second Principle of
Culture.)

The teacher must see to it that pupils get this practice.

The Discovery and Use of Rules. Observation and recol-

SPELLING 151

lective practice are necessities especially because of the irregu-
larities of orthography. But, as indicated in the beginning
of this chapter, there are conformities to law in English or-
thography, which, though they seem " few and far between"
to the thoughtless, can be discovered and utilized in learning
to spell. Indeed, memory finds a most grateful reinforce-
ment in more than a few rules, or laws, of spelling. Among
the most serviceable rules, though of course there are excep-
tions, are the following :

1. Final e is dropped before a suffix that begins with a
vowel ; as, write, ivriting.

2. Final e is retained before a suffix that begins with a con-
sonant ; as, state, statement. Exception,, jwd^men^.

3. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to i before a
suffix that does not begin with i; as, lady, ladies.

4. Final y preceded by a vowel sound is retained before all
suffixes ; as, joy, joyous, enjoyment, chimney, chimneys.

5. After a single vowel, the final consonant of any word
accented on the final syllable, is doubled before a suffix that
begins with a vowel ; as, control, controlled, flit, flitting.

6. After a single vowel, the final consonant of any word
not accented on the final syllable, is not doubled before a suf-
fix that begins with a vowel ; as, benefit, benefited.

7. After single vowels, final/ and I of monosyllables are
generally doubled ; as, bell, staff.

8. After diphthongs, or more than a single vowel, the final
consonant is never doubled ; as, reveal, revealing.

9. Words relating to matter end in ceous, and others end in
cious ; as, cretaceous, ferocious.

10. In such words as conceive and receipt, c is generally fol-
lowed by ei, and other letters of the alphabet by ie ; as, belief,
retrieve.

There is no sufficient reason why pupils should not be re-
quired to look for such rules and to justify their spelling by

152 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

reference to these rules when they apply to the case in hand.
For a full discussion of such rules see Worcester's Unabridged
Dictionary.

II. THE EECITATION OF A SPELLING LESSON.
What the requirements of a recitation in spelling may be,
depends very much on the means to be used in reciting. When
the words are to be written the necessities are very different
from those of an oral recitation, whether it be alphabetic or
phonetic. It seems most convenient to consider written spell-
ing first.

a. WEITTEN SPELLING.

The points to be considered are as follows : (1) Prelimina-
ries ; (2) Giving out the Words ; (3) Spelling the Words ; (4)
Corrections ; (5) Assignment of Lessons ; and (6) The Mean-
ing of Words in Spelling Lessons.

Preliminaries. The words to be spelled should not be
given out before the class is properly seated and supplied with
the most desirable writing materials, or before the class has
passed to the black-board and taken the most suitable places
according to thoughtful directions on the part of the teacher.
The most suitable writing materials for spelling classes are
prepared blank books, together with pen and ink. On passing
to the board, if that be the mode of recitation, the pupils
should be required to prepare the board, i.e., to erase what-
ever may have to be erased, to space the board by means of
vertical lines, and to write their names neatly near the top
toward the right upper corner of their respective spaces.
Whether seated or standing, all members should be required
to maintain a natural and graceful posture. No disturbing
conduct should be tolerated, and absolute attentiveness should
be developed in all parties about to engage in the recitation.

Giving Out the Words. When everybody is ready, — and
that should be as soon as possible, — the words should be pro-

SPELLING 153

nounced in such order as the teacher thinks best. The words
should, of course, be proiiounced distinctly and correctly, but
only once, except for good reasons. For obvious reasons it is
generally better that the teacher, rather than a pupil, gives out
the words. As boojj. as a v/ord has been written, some pupil
ought to be requested to use it in an illustrative sentence, or
to tell in his own way what the word means. It is often good
for the pupil's development to associate the meaning of words
with the spelliog. The teacher should have a stx)ck of illus-
trations on h^^nd for use in every recitatiotr.

Spelling the Words. (1) As suggested, prepared blank-
books, rather than slates, should be used in written spelling.
As soon as pupils are able to do so, they should be required to
write the words with pen and ink. This method effectually
prevents erasures and " second trials," first steps to indecision
and dishonesty, two serious habits to which human nature is so
prone. (2) To develop the habit of capitalization and punctua-
tion, frequent dictation lessons should be conjoined with the
regular spelling lists. In these lessons the teacher frames the
words of the list into sentences. He reads these sentences in
parts, if necessary, or as a whole, when possible, and requires
the pupils to write them correctly. (3) In lists, or columns,
of written words, only proper names require capitals. (4)
The pupils should frequently be required to write the words
in separate syllables, the separation being denoted by spaces,
rather than by hyphens. This device reserves the hyphen for
its more distinctive uses in compound words and at the end of
a line of writing. (5) With younger pupils it is well to use
slate and pencil at first, and paper and pencil afterwards, until
they may be trusted with pen and ink. The words should be
written in columns and numbered. (6) The black-board is
often better than either slate or paper. It is especially useful
when words are to be spelled in separate syllables. A spelling
lesson on the black-board is sometimes an agreeable variation

154 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

from the other modes of written spelling. The words should
be written in columns and numbered.

Corrections. At a signal from the teacher^ the pupils may-
exchange blank-books at the seat, or places at the board, care
being taken to prevent cheating. The pupils may also be
allowed to correct their own lists, in order to develop moral
responsibility. The right of appeal to the teacher must be
allowed when pupils do not correct their own lists, and the
teacher should frequently inspect the corrected lists to make
sure of his pupils. In the case of younger pupils such in-
spection must obviously be most frequent. Corrections may
be indicated by crosses, figures, or any other good device upon
which the teacher may determine. At the close of every regu-
lar recitation in spelling, the misspelled words should be re-
corded in a book kept for that purpose. If prepared blank-
books are used by the class, the words may be correctly written
right after the incorrect spelling. This is probably the best
way ; it requires the pupil to compare words, and saves the
teacher the trouble of constant inspection.

Assignraent of Lessons. At the close of the recitation,
if the pupils are young, the list of words for the next lesson
ought to be pronounced. The pupils should have the first
chance to pronounce the words of the prospective lesson. In
case of failure, the teacher must come to the pupil's rescue.
He may simply pronounce the difficult word, and require the
pupils to imitate his pronunciations. But the better way is to
resort to phonic drill in the case of difficult words. (See
chapter on Reading.) Mischief must come from any neglect
on the part of the teacher to see to these pre-pronimciations.

The Meaning- of Words in Spelling Lessons. (See
under Oral Spelling.)

SPELLING 155

6. ORAL SPELLING.

The points to be considered are as follows : (1) Prelimi-
naries ; (2) Giving out the Words ; (3) Spelling the Words ;
(4) Assignment of Lessons ; and (5) The Meaning of Words.

Preliminaries. If the method of " trapping" is not to be
used, the pupils of the oral spelling class may be either seated
or standing. In either case, they should be required to assume
a healthful and orderly posture. It is thought best, however,
to require the class to stand rather than to sit ; this posture is
a physical relief to pupils, and prepares them to sit still when
they return to their respective seats. Then, too, if the trap-
ping system is used, the standing posture is obviously more
appropriate.

Giving Out the Words. (1) The trapping system of
course requires that the words be passed from the upper to the
lower end of the class in regular order. When trapping is not
allowed, the words may be assigned to any pupil at pleasure.
The former method is advisable as a stimulus. (2) The words
should not be given out in any order which might tempt the
pupils to commit it. If this caution is not observed, pupils
are likely to prepare only those words which they expect to
get in their turn. (3) In giving out the words of a spelling
lesson, the teacher should not, except for good reasons, pro-
nounce a word more than once. If he falls into the habit of
pronouncing the words oftener than once, the pupils will ex-
pect him to do so. In that event, they will become habitu-
ally inattentive, thus trying the teacher's patience, wasting
valuable time, and fitting themselves for failures in later
years. (4) There are various methods of passing from word
to word in assigning them to a class, (a) The same word may
be assigned by nod of the head, or other appropriate signal, to
more than one pupil, just as if it had been misspelled. This
method develops attentiveness and certainty as to the spelling

156 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

of a word. (6) Whenever a word is misspelled, the next word
may be assigned. The pupil to whom it is assigned is ex-
pected to spell the word that was missed rather than the word
after it. If the pupil fails to do this, the teacher gives out a
new word, and keeps on giving out new words until some one
spells the word that was first missed. The pupil that spells
this word, takes the place of the pupil that missed it, or, if it
has passed the "head" of the class, he "goes up head." This
is possibly the best method. It develops the greatest atten-
tion, and stimulates to thorough preparation of the lesson.
Both methods, (a) and (6), may be used in every recitation.
The variation is very stimulating. (5) The teacher should
not allow himself to fall into the habit of saying " right,"
" wrong," " next," etc. This habit is not only ludicrous, but
cultivates an undesirable dependence of the pupils on the
teacher. (6) Sometimes false sympathy prompts teachers to
suggest the spelling of a word by pronouncing it in such a
way as to name the letters. Thus, teachers are sometimes
tempted to say orator for orator^ infinite for infinite. This is
evidently wrong. If the pupil cannot spell a word when it is
pronounced as it would be in good speaking or reading, the
pupil does not know the word, and should fail. The ability
to pronounce words as they should be pronounced is obviously
indispensable in teaching spelling.

Spelling- the Words. (1) In the oral spelling class, the
pupil should be required to pronounce the assigned word before
he attempts to spell it. This precaution assures both teacher
and pupil that the word was understood, and thus avoids dis-
putes, as well as other evils. (2) There are three possible
things to do after the pupil's pronunciation of a word : (a)
The pupil may name the letters of each syllable in order, pro-
nouncing each syllable in its order, but only once, and the
word as a whole at last. (6) The pupil may name the letters
as before, pronouncing each syllable in its order, and then

SPELLING 157

again in its proper connection with all the syllables that pre-
cede, thus pronouncing the last syllable twice in all, the second
last syllable thrice, etc. Illustration : P&rdgraph ; p, a, r
{par), d {&), j)C(,m, g, r, a, p, h [graph), paragraph, (c) The
pupil may name the letters as before, pausing at the end of
each syllable, and pronouncing the word as a whole, thus pro-
nouncing each syllable only once. (3) The first method (a) is
probably proper for younger pupils as a drill in pronouncing.
The second method may be even better, so long as the words
to be spelled are not long polysyllables. In classes that are
ready for polj'syllables, the third method is less awkward,
saves time, and is sufficiently suggestive of the syllables that
make up the word. Indeed, it may be questioned whether
the first two methods accomplish that which is commonly
claimed for them. It seems far better to teach the pronuncia-
tion of words by phonic drills. This procedure reserves alpha-
betic spelling to its legitimate sphere, i.e., naming the ortho-
graphic characters of a word.

Assignment of Spelling Lessons. (See under Written
Spelling.)

The Meaning of Words in Spelling Lessons. (1) In
the spelling lessons that accompany reading lessons, as well as
in those incidental spelling tests that belong to all lessons,
" meanings" should, of course, be taught with spelling. This
is evidently advisable, but in the interests of the lessons to
which the spelling is supplementary, rather than in the interest
of spelling as spelling. On grounds of convenience, these
supplementary lessons in spelling should be oral lessons. But
oral spelling loses its native interest when interrupted by tests
on " meanings." Therefore, except in cases where the mean-
ing of words, rather than their pronunciation, determines the
spelling, the tests on meanings should either precede or follow
the regular spelling exercise.

(2) In our days it is supposed that only heretics in educa-

158 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

tion would advocate spelling lessons in wliich the meaning of
all the words cannot be taught. This is high ground to take.
The view is based on a false creed in psychology and peda-
gogy, {a) In the first place, it is wrongly supposed that
memory ought to be absolutely dependent on the understand-
ing. The order in which the mental functions mature con-
futes this theory. (See the eleventh law of Mental Activity.)
Then, too, a good mechanical memory, i.e., associative memory
unassisted by the understanding, is the best equipment for
more than one important task in the practical affairs of life.
(6) In the second place, it is economy in pedagogy to teach the
younger pupils the spelling of words whose meanings they can-
not fully master for the time being on account of immaturity.
This conclusion follows from several obvious facts : First, the
mind of younger pupils is able to spell, though unable to mas-
ter meanings. Second, the programme of younger pupils is
not crowded. This leaves room for stress on spelling as spell-
ing. Thus time and possibilities are utilized. Third, the
competitive interest is present as a sufficient stimulus to the
necessary associative efforts. Fourth, the meanings of words
are readily mastered in due time, whereas the spelling of words
requires too much time and effort when the epoch of thought-
lessons has come.

(3) It is therefore maintained, as we think, on sufficient
grounds, and earnestly advocated, that regular spelling lessons
from spelling-books be kept in our course of studies, whether
or not we find time enough to teach the meaning of all the
words as fast as we go in spelling. If any other argument is
demanded, it may be confidently affirmed that those who
learned to spell under the old spelling-book stimulus are in-
finitely superior in practical spelling. There is no doubt about
it that the spelling-book has been abused, and that it will be
abused ; but, all things considered, its legitimate use will pro-
duce an ability in spelling that is most gratifying, -whereas its

SPELLING 159

disuse has sent a great host of Josh. Billings into our Normal
Schools, Colleges, and other spheres. The necessary " stress"
on spelling as spelling is best secured by systematic, persistent
use of a good spelling-book.

III. SUPPLEMENTARY DEVICES IN SPELLING.

The tasks of the pupil in learning to spell, as pointed out,
are, (1) Observation ; (2) Recollective Practice ; and (3) The
Discovery and Use of Rules. But the pupil will be more
likely to perform these tasks vigorously and habitually if the
proper stimulus is supplied. In most instances it is not an
adequate stimulus, to insist simply on the importance of
spelling. This argument somehow fails to touch the ordi-
nary pupil to the quick. Any appeal to the competitive
instinct is more effective. The competitive instinct is utilized
in the following devices: (1) The Method of Trapping; (2)
Reviews ; (3) Recreations in Word-Building ; and (4) Spell-
ing Matches.

The Method of Trapping-. The "trapping" system is
most effective in oral recitations, and with younger pupils,
but can be used to advantage in written recitations, and with
older pupils. (1) In the written recitation the number of
errors determines the respective places. The matter must be
settled at the close of the recitation, though the places should
not be taken until the next recitation. The pupil will usually
see to it that places are not wrongly taken. The seats, slates,
corrections, etc., must be carefully supervised to prevent dis-
honesty. (2) In oral recitations the temptation to cheat is not
so great, and attempts to do so are more readily detected. The
method of trapping in oral spelling classes adds a difficult task
to that of conducting the class, namely, the prevention and
cure of such feelings as anger, envy, pride, etc. Vigilance and
absolute justice are therefore imperative. It is a good plan to
require the pupil at the head to start again at the foot. This

160 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

device is in most instances enjoyed as much by the pupil that
goes down foot as by the others.

Reviews. It was pointed out that at the close of regular
written recitations in spelling, the misspelled words should be
recorded in a book kept for that purpose. At stated times
these lists should be used as a review lesson. The words
marked as misspelled in oral recitations may also be used in
the same way. The importance of such reviews can hardly be
over-estimated, seeing that they make it necessary for pupils
to study the very words which ought to be studied. The list
of words to be spelled in reviews may, for the same reason,
be selected from readers, examination papers, compositions,
etc., but always with adaptation to the pupils' grade. (See
First, Second, and Third Principles of Instruction.)

Recreations in Word-Building. Various recreations in
spelling have been proposed by ingenious teachers. These
devices are useful as supplementary w^ork for pupils whose
time cannot otherwise be advantageously utilized. It is, how-
ever, doubtful whether such recreations should ever be allowed
to take the place of the ordinary spelling lessons. As a stim-
ulus to word-building the following recreation has been pro-
posed : The pupil takes any fertile word, as subscription, and
writes in a column all the words which he can construct, using
any letter of the given word only once in each new word, or
as often as it occurs in the given w^ord. The new words must
of course be true words. It is surprising how many words
can be built up by young pupils in this way.

Spelling Matches. (1) The oral spelling match, as eveiy
one wlio has any personal knowledge of the matter, knows, is
a most stimulating variety in the study of spelling. The
competitive instinct is thus excited throughout the school, and
sometimes throughout the community to w^hich the school
belongs. A written spelling match, though quite tame when
compared with the oral spelling matches, is nevertheless very

SPELLING 161

effective if wisely conducted. Eeview lessons may be con-
ducted with advantage in this way. Spelling matches should
not come too often. They encroach too much upon regular
work. When they do come, say once in two weeks, the con-
ditions should be clearly understood, so as to avoid various
evils. Disorderliness must be strictly excluded. (2) Inge-
nious teachers have hit upon more than one good way to con-
duct spelling matches. Among others the following are rec-
ommended :

The Common Method. In the common spelling match two
persons of about equal ability are appointed by the teacher, or
selected by the class, to be the " leaders," or " captains," of
" sides." These captains come forward, and, after deciding
which one is to have first choice, call up alternately the per-
sons who are to take part in the contest. In this way the
" sides" are formed on opposite sides of the room. When the
lines have been formed, the teacher proceeds to assign the
words to be spelled. He assigns the first word to the captain
that had the first choice in choosing " sides." If the captain
to whom the word was assigned misses, he is required to take
his seat, i.e., he is " spelled down." The other captain then
takes his turn to spell the word that was missed. If he misses,
he takes his seat, etc. The side that remains on the floor last,
or that has more spellers left, at the close of the contest, is
declared the winning side. The time to be allowed, or the
list of words to be used, should be settled before the match
begins. There are several obvious objections to this method
of spelling.

Saving and Out. The common method can be converted
into a better method by a variation in the process of spelling
down. The plan is as follows : If A, and then his opponent
B, misses a word, but C spells it, A is " saved" from taking
his seat and only B is " out." In this way, two, three, and
more persons, are sometimes saved to a side. The merits of

11

162 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

this method are evident. " Saving and out/' is probably the
best of all the methods for oral spelling matches.

A Written Spelling Match. Written spelling matches, when
wisely conducted, are not as uninteresting as it is sometimes
supposed. The choosing of sides can be managed as in oral
spelling. The chief difficulty is to seat the spellers so as to
keep those of the same side from helping each other. This
difficulty is usually overcome by alternate seating, i.e., by so
arranging the spellers in seats as to separate those of one side
by means of the spellers of the opposing side. When the
number of words upon which it was agreed, has been spelled,
slates, or books, may be exchanged, opp?nents correcting the
words of opponents, and reporting the number of mistakes.
All the spellers must be allowed to appeal to the teacher before
the final results are announced. The side which, on adding
up mistakes, is found to have missed the greater number of
words, is declared "vanquished," or "defeated," or "lost."

There are four or five other methods of conducting spelling
matches, but they hardly deserve recognition here. Ingenious
teachers may invent plans to suit themselves, but the attempt
to change plans too often is productive of misunderstandings,
and should therefore be avoided. The teacher must in all
cases see to it that quarrels and bitterness do not result from
these competitive exercises in spelling.

IV. RELATIVE MERITS OF WRITTEN AND ORAL SPELLING.

The questions now confront us. What are the merits of writ-
ten spelling and of oral spelling ? Which of the two modes
deserves to be cultivated rather than the other? Do both
modes of spelling deserve equal respect ? In order to answer
these questions we must inquire into the advantages and dis-
advantages of each method.

The Advantages of "Written Spelling. There are at
least three important advantages in written spelling : (1) Writ-

SPELLING 163

ten spelling is more instructive than oral spelling ; (2) The
mental discipline of written spelling is greater than that o .
oral spelling ; and (3) The practical necessity of written spell-
ing is greater than that of oral spelling.

1 . Written spelling is more instructive than oral spelling.

(1) The " after-images" of sight are generally more persist-
ent than those of hearing. (See Psychology.) In written
spelling the letters of a word, and their true order, are there-
fore impressed more indelibly. This result is illustrated in
the fact that pupils whose sight is defective generally find it
harder to master spelling, than those whose sight is perfect.
The fact that deaf pupils learn to spell sooner than blind
pupils, proves the rule.

(2) In written spelling the eye can dwell longer on the
word just spelled, thus stimulating the habit of corrective
comparisons, and producing vividness of sensation, the essen-
tial to persistent associations in memory. (See the sixth law
of Mental Activity.) Words orally spelled are lost to the ear
almost instantaneously. Thus we see that by reason of the
greater corrective possibilities in written spelling, it is the
better mode of studying spelling. This conclusion is illus-
trated in the well-known habit of writing a word to see how
it looks when we are not sure that we have spelled it right
orally. The conclusion is also confirmed by the fact that per-
sons who learn to spell by eye can spell well orally and in
composition, whereas those who can spell well orally often
spell poorly in composition.

2. The mental discipline of written spelling is greater than that

of oral spelling.

(1) In written spelling every pupil is required to spell every
word. This is not true in oral spelling, except, perhaps, where
the teacher is a master in his art.

(2) In written spelling the pupil is required to pay unflag-

164 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

ging attention. This discipKne develops the power to perse-
vere in a task to its end. There is no species of culture that
surpasses this power of resolute attention. The pupil that
learns to pay unflagging attention in the spelling class, is so
many steps nearer to success in other studies and in life. Oral
spelling, except in the hands of rare teachers, does not produce
these effects on the pupil's will, and hence is morally inferior.
(3) It is in written spelling, as was pointed out, that records
of misspelled words can be most systematically kept for re-
views. While such records are partly possible in oral spelling,
the procedure is less satisfactory.

3. The practical necessity of written spelling is greater than that
of oral spelling.

In the ordinary affairs of life we could almost dispense
with oral spelling. It is different with written spelling ; we
need it almost every day and in the most varied interests.
The ability to spell orally is not, as was pointed out, a suf-
ficient guarantee that a person can spell correctly in writing
letters, etc. Correct spelling in " writings," as it will be
pointed out at the close of this chapter, is desirable both on
its own account, and for other reasons.

The Advantages of Oral Spelling. There are at least
three advantages in oral spelling : (1) Oral spelling is more
convenient incidentally than written spelling ; (2) Oral spell-
ing is the natural supplement to written spelling ; and (3)
Oral spelling is more interesting than written spelling.

1. Oral spelling is more convenient incidentally than written
spelling.
Pupils should be required to spell any suspicious word
in any recitation of schooL Elusive terms, and technical
terms, can often be definitely placed in memory by simply
spelling them a few times. It is generally more convenient
to spell such words orally, though it must be conceded that

SPELLING 165

words which will slip again and again must be written to be
mastered. This task may take longer, but as it is important,
it should not be neglected.

2. Oral spelling is the natural supplement to written spelling.
In the cases of defective sight, so common in our days,

resort to oral spelling is certainly justifiable as a supplement
or substitute. It was also pointed out in the paragraph on
" Preparation of Spelling Lessons," that the senses reinforce
each other in the work of committing something to memory.
In other words, if the pupil's eye is unreliable, his ear must
be made to do something to help the eye.

3. Oral spelling is more interesting than written spelling.

(1) The competitive instinct is stimulated more successfully
in oral than in written spelling.

(2) In oral spelling pupils should be required to stand ; this
requirement relieves the monotony of sitting still in the seats,
and thus pleases pupils.

(3) Oral spelling is itself a pleasure to pupils ; it is an op-
portunity to use their vocal organs, an opportunity which most
pupils welcome instinctively, especially if they are younger
pupils. This interest in oral spelling deserves consideration.
(See the Third Principle of Instruction.)

V. PEINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION.

The foregoing considerations lead us to several broad con-
clusions, which deserve to be adopted as principles of instruc-
tion in spelling.

1. The words which the pupil meets in the studies of
his grade should be developed into a w^orking vocabu-
lary. The list of words to be spelled by pupils in elementary
grades, should consist of words which these pupils meet in all
the studies of those grades. The same rule should hold in
grammar grades and higher grades. The teacher must see to

166 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

it that pupils not only learn to sj)ell these words, but also to
use them intelligently, whether it be in studying and reciting
the various lessons of reading, history, geography, etc., or in
writing letters, essays, etc. (See the Fourth Principle of In-
struction.) This work may be combined with the lessons in
reading, history, grammar, etc., or it may be done in special
spelling lessons. If special recitations are set apart for such
work, the list of words selected by the teacher may be written
on the black-board where the class can see and study them.

2. The exact psychological complement and sufficient
stimulus of oral spelling should be added to -written spell-
ing. (1) Since oral spelling is a substitute for written spell-
ing in the case of pupils whose sight is defective, or a com-
plement in the formation of persistent associations, it follows
that the teacher should study his class, and then adjust the
proportion of written and oral spelling to the needs of the
class. (2) Since the competitive instinct can be utilized to
better advantage in oral than in written spelling, there ought
to be oral spelling in those cases where it is advantageous, i.e.,
in reading classes, in other branches, and as special lessons
with younger pupils.

3. The "spelling-book" should be used as much as
proper " stress" and " economy" require. (1) The spelling-
book has always emphasized the importance of spelling as a
subject of study. Wherever it falls into disuse, teachers are
likely to pay too little attention to spelling, and pupils fall
into habits of careless spelling. (2) Economy requires that
lists of words be mastered in spelling, even when the words
cannot all be developed into a working vocabulary, (a) The
mind of the pupil is ready for this task : associative memory,
stimulated by the competitive instinct which is present in
younger pupils, fits them to do the required work. (See the
Eleventh Law of Mental Activity and the Sixth Principle of
Instruction.) (6) There is a good deal of time on the hands

SPELLING 167

of younger pupils, which can be utilized in such lessons, (c)
Moreover, wherever the spelling-book has been wisely used,
the results have been gratifying.

VI. COURSE OF LESSONS.
It is evident from the principles of instruction in spelling,
that the course of lessons should be as follows : (1) The vocab-
ulary of the grade to which the pupil belongs should be
mastered in spelKng ; and (2) there should be a parallel and
supplementary course in the spelling-book.

1. Vocabulary Lessons. The pupil needs an ever-in-
creasing vocabulary in order (1) that he may understand
books, and (2) that he may express his thoughts. It is ob-
vious that this list of words (the pupil's necessary vocabulary)
is the list to be spelled before any other work in spelling is
done.

2. The Spelling-Book. The present necessity of the pupil
deserves the teacher's first attention; but, as pointed out on
page 70, the future necessity of the pupil deserves attention,
too. In other words, when pupils arrive at a certain stage in
their progress, their working vocabulary needs to be increased
so fast that, unless they have already learned to spell many
of the words, they will not have time enough to master both
spelling and meanings, and are therefore likely to neglect the
spelling. To avoid this evil, the lists of a graded spelling-book
are to be spelled somewhat in advance of the actual vocabu-
lary need of the pupil.

VII. THE IMPORTANCE OF SPELLING.
There are very few subjects of study so seriously neglected
as that of spelling. The importance of other studies is more
obvious, and this pushes spelling into the background of our
estimation. The following estimate of spelling seems fair :
(1) The discipline of spelling has a moral and practical

168 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

radius ; and (2) good spelling is a desirable instrument in
written communications, whether they be commercial; social,
or literary and scientific.

1. The Discipline of Spelling. The habits and tastes cul-
tivated in the efforts required to master spelling, assert them-
selves as habits and tastes in the moral and practical activities
of pupils. In other words, the habits of attention, accuracy,
and correction, which the pupil must cultivate in order to
master spelling, will in time become habits and tastes in his
other studies, and in his moral and practical dealings.

2. The Desirability of Ability in Spelling. (1) The
young people that seek positions of trust and honor, must give
evidence of character in most unexpected ways. A business
man knows, when he reads the letter of an applicant for a posi-
tion, whether he may safely employ the applicant or not. He
knows this not only by observing the penmanship and indi-
viduality of the letter, but also by the spelling of the words
used in the letter. (2) What is true of written intercourse
with business men, is equally true of social letters, literary
products, and scientific treatises. We think better of our cor-
respondents when they spell well. We could not tolerate bad
spelling in literature and scientific treatises. There is no
reason why these ideals should not be respected in our school
curriculum. (3) It is to be deplored, therefore, that spelling
has fallen into such great neglect as facts at present show, and
the evil should be corrected in all grades of our schools.

COMPOSITION 169

CHAPTER yi.

COMPOSITION.

The purpose in hand requires reference to (1) The Nature
of Composition, and (2) Instruction in Composition.

A. THE NATURE OF COMPOSITION.

The nature of composition is conveniently treated under the
following heads: (1) The Selection of a Subject; (2) The
Cumulation of Materials ; (3) The Plan of Construction ; and
(4) The Construction of a Composition.

The Selection of a Subject. In the ultimate sense, com-
position, as the origin of the word denotes, is not cumulation,
but construction. If composition were only cumulation, and
not also construction, any collection of materials would serve
the purpose as well as any other. The supreme concern would
then be to fill up space. If, as indicated, composition is con-
struction, the selection of a subject must be the first task.
The selection of a subject in composition determines what
materials ought to be accumulated, and what plan of construc-
tion is most appropriate, just as in architecture the species of
building to be erected determines these matters. The mate-
rials and plan that will do for a story, for example, will not
do at all for a thesis, just as the materials and plan for a
cottage will not do for a fortress.

The Cumulation of Materials. In architecture the two
important considerations are (1) the plan of the house, and (2)
the material resources. The man of means need not count
the costs beforehand, when he is about to build a house. For
him it is possible to plan the house to suit his taste, and to let

170 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

the costs be what they will. But the man of limited means
should first examine his bank account, and then plan his house
within his means. In composition, as in architecture, the two
important considerations after selecting a subject, are (1) the
plan of construction, and (2) the material resources. The man
of large mental resources need not count the costs beforehand,
when he is about to write a composition. For him it is pos-
sible to plan the construction according to the ends in view,
regardless of the mental costs. But the man of limited men-
tal means should first ascertain his resources, and then plan
his composition.

If the materials are collected before the plan of construc-
tion is matured, a tentative plan should be followed in the col-
lection. In that event, it is true, the supply may exceed the
demand of the ultimate plan ; but this is infinitely better than
poverty in supply. Indeed, the supply of materials should
be much greater than the demand. In that event critical
selection of materials becomes possible, and this is a most
desirable possibility.

The Plan of Construction. When the collection of mate-
rials has been accomplished, the tentative plan of structure
should be developed into an ultimate plan. The plan of a
composition is commonly termed Outline, or Synopsis. A
synopsis in composition is a "draught" for the composer.
It represents the phases of the subject, and therefore serves as
a frame or skeleton for the collected materials. The composer
simply covers this frame, or clothes the skeleton, with suitable
materials, and thus completes the structure. In order that a
synopsis may serve its purpose, it must be specific, i.e., it must
be designed for the particular species of composition to be
constructed.

Species of Composition. The species of composition are as
follows : (1) Description, (2) Narration, (3) Letters, (4) Essays,
(5) Orations, and (6) Poems.

COMPOSITION 171

(1) A composition devoted to the qualities of an object, per-
son, scene, or phenomenon, is termed a Description. (2) A.
composition concerned with events, whether they be fictitious or
true, is termed a Narration. Tales, stories, anecdotes, biogra-
phy, history, novels, etc., are species of narration, (3) A Letter
is a written communication from one person to another. The
species of letters are didactic, news, official, commeicial, in-
troductory, etc. (4) A brief composition devoted to the ex-
pression of opinions on important subjects, is termed an Essay.
Editorials, reviews, etc., are common examples of essays. A
Thesis is a lengthy and logical essay on some dignified subject.
A text-book is a thesis. (5) A composition intended for hear-
ers, is termed an Oration. Speeches, addresses, lectures, ser-
mons, etc., are species of oration. (6) A metrical composition
constructed to please the taste, is termed a Poem. Hymns
are poems.

The skeleton of a description should promote organic
sequence in construction; that of narration, chronological
sequence ; and that of essays or orations, syllogistic sequence.
The following outlines are illustrations of these requirements.

A THEEMOMETEE. {Description.)

INTRODUCTION.

1. Vaeiations in temperature.

2. The need of exact measurement of tempera-

ture.

THE INVENTION OF THE THERMOMETER.

1. It had long been noticed that bodies expand

and shrink.

2. This suggested the possibility of constructing

A thermometer.

172 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE THEKMOMETER.

1. a hollow tube with bulb is needed.

2. The bulb is filled with meecury.

3. A VACUUM is left above.

4. How THE MEASUEING IS DONE.

1. The tube is fixed in a marhed plate.

2. The degrees are counted upwards.

5. How THE SCALE IS MADE.

1. The tube is immersed in melting ice for the freezing^

point.

2. Plunged into steam for the boiling-point.

3. The intervening space is divided into equal spaces.

CONCLUSION: ITS USES.

1. To COMPAEE THE HEAT OF DIFFEEENT CLIMATES.

2. In THE AETS.

FIVE YEARS' EXPERIENCE WITH A SUNDAY-SCHOOL

CLASS.

( Clark's Practical Rhetoric. ) [Narration. )

INTRODUCTION.

MY HESITATION ABOUT TAKING THE CLASS, AND THE
FIRST SABBATH.

THE CLASS.

1. Original members.

2. Changes.

THE PUPILS.

1. Peesonal appearance.

2. Characters.

3. Home Surroundings.

COMPOSITION 173

THE WORK.

1. Difficulties.

2. Willingness of the children to learn.

3. New perplexities.

4. One benefit.

MEMORIES.

1. The SUNDAY-SCHOOL HOUR.

2. Confidence and good-will of the children.

3. A death-bed.

4. A Christmas morning.

SCHOLARS AT PRESENT, AND A THOUGHT ABOUT THE
FUTURE.

CONCLUSION.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEAEB. {Biography.)
INTRODUCTION.

1. The rarity of masters in literature.

2. Reference to several masters.

THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF SHAKESPEARE'S BIRTH.

1. Date.

1. Character of the Times.

2. Place.

3. Parents.

CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH.

1. Opportunities.

2. Habits.

3. Incidents and anecdotes.

4. Crises.

174 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
MANHOOD.

1. Talents.

2. Occupation.

3. Achievements.

4. Critical estimates.

1. Shakespeare^ s character.

2. Shakespear^s works.

3. Shakespeare's enduring fame.

CONCLUSION.

1. Death.

1. Obsequies.

2. nesting place.

3. Reflections.

HABITS. (^Msay.)
INTEODUCTION.

1. Interesting anecdotes.
What is a habit?

How DOES anything become a habit? Examples.
What habits are possible?

1. A very important possibility.
What habits should we cultivate?

1 . TTie governing considerations.

2. Good habits enumerated and defined.

3. The uiorth of good habits.

The persistency of habits. Examples.

1 . How to destroy bad habits. Anecdotes.

2. The curse of evil habits.

CONCLUSION.

1. How careful we should be informing habits.

COMPOSITION 175

WILL. (Thesis.)
INTEODUCTION.

1. The ability to govern ourselves is termed

WILL.

2. Any exercise of this ability is termed will-

ing, OR volition.

THE NATURE OF WILL.

1. Motives. The influences that enter, but do not irresist-

ibly determine, a voluntary struggle, are termed Mo-
tives.

2. Decision. The voluntary selection of an alternative,

after comparing it with others, is termed Decision.

1. Intention. The voluntary selection of an alter-

native whose attainment is prospective, is
termed Intention.

(1) Vigorous intention is termed Purpose.

Examples.

(2) Invincible purpose is termed Resolu-

tion. Examples.

2. Attention. The voluntary and uninterrupted se-

lection of one alternative rather than others,
is termed Attention.

THE CULTIVATION OF WILL.

1. Development of noble conceptions and feel-

ings.

2. Vigorous and resolute activity in all tasks.

3. The pupil's efforts must be stimulated, super-

vised, assisted.

CONCLUSION.

1. The worth of will.

2. The importance of its culture.

176 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

THE PEOBABILITIES. {Lecture.)

INTRODUCTION.

NOW ON THE WAY TO BE TEACHERS.

1. The influences hitherto at woek in you.

2. The difference of personal attitude.

1. Eads in view.

2. The " hearf' in each attitude.

3. Resolution, weak or strong.

THE PROBABILITIES.

1. There will be work for you to do.

1. TTie demand for teachers.

2. Prudent preparation, " Professional Training."

2. Whether you will be worthy of so noble a

calling, must depend to a great extent on
your own efforts.

1. Exercise is the price of culture.

1. In it must be a good head.

2. In it must be a whole heart.

3. In it must be a set purpose.

2. Study is the price of vdsdom.

1. In it must be humility.

2. In it must be constancy.

3. In it must be vigor.

3. The lives of many will be put into your keep-

ing FOR WEAL OR WOE. ThUS IT APPEARS IM-
PORTANT,

1. That you should understand your business.

2. And that you should mind your busmess.

CONCLUSION.

COMPOSITION 177

The Construction of a Composition. " A mass of mate-
rials, however fine the quality, no more constitutes a composi-
tion than a pile of bricks and lumber constitutes a palace.
The builder must select, fit, and join together the materials
before there is a building." The parts of the frame, or skele-
ton, in composition, represent, as it has been explained, the
phases of the subject, and determine what materials to use in
completing the structure. Therefore, when the framework
of the proposed composition has been erected, the collected
thoughts must be arranged as required by the framework.

In order to obtain favor, a composition must be brought
into connection with the occasion. This is generally accom-
plished by means of (1) reference to current events, (2) anec-
dotes, (3) striking statement of the propositions to be discussed,
etc. The portion of the composition devoted to this purpose,
is termed the Introduction. The portion of the composition
that expresses the message to be expressed, is termed the Body
of the composition. A composition should produce definite
and desirable consequences in readers or hearers. This is
generally accomplished by (1) a recapitulation of arguments,
(2) an appeal to the feelings, etc. The portion of the compo-
sition devoted to this purpose, is termed the Conclusion.
Thus it appears that the necessary parts of a formal composi-
tion are the Introduction, the Body, and the Conclusion.
These requirements need not be insisted on in an informal
composition.

Mechanical Execution. (1) If the composition occupies only
one page, let us say a page of foolscap, the subject is to be writ-
ten on the top line, between equal margins. The text is to begin
on the third line, an inch or more from the margin of the page.
After neatly folding the upper and the lower third of the page
upon the middle third, the subject, the name of the writer, the
date, etc., should be written crosswise upon the middle third.
Taste in arrangement is very desirable. (2) If the composition

12

178 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

occupies a number of pages, as in the case of a thesis, the first
page should be devoted to the statement of the subject, the name
of the writer, the date, etc. Only one page of a sheet should
be used. The synopsis, or skeleton, should be written on the
third page. The subject of a composition, appropriately and
interestingly stated, should be written on the first line of the
fifth page. The following line should not be used. The In-
troduction should begin on the third line, with the usual mar-
gin of an inch or more. Headings of the sections of a chapter
should be written across the page with one line unoccupied be-
fore and after them. (3) That which is said about each phase
of the subject, as represented by the skeleton, is termed a
Paragraph. Each paragraph is a composition in itself, and
all the paragraphs taken together in their true order, constitute
the com position- whole. The subject of each paragraph should
be stated in appropriate words, and concisely. This statement,
or heading, should be written on the first line of the paragraph,
underscored, and separated from the first sentence by a period
and considerable space. When no paragraph headings are
used, as in subordinate paragraphs, the first line of the para-
graph should begin an inch or more from the left margin of
the page. A paragraph should never begin on the unfinished
line of a preceding paragraph. The paragraphs should be as
perfect as possible in the choice of words, correctness and effec-
tiveness of sentences, figures of speech, punctuation, capitals,
illustrations, quotations, etc.

Finishing Touches. Improprieties and errors in a com-
position should be criticised and corrected.

Criticism. Errors and improprieties will creep into a com-
position, do what we may to keep them out. Among the de-
fects that commonly creep into a composition are (1) the choice
of inferior thoughts, (2) an inferior plan of structure, (3) de-
fective junction of paragraphs, (4) weak illustrations and quo-
tations, (5) poor taste in figures of speech, (G) faulty vocabu-

COMPOSITION 179

lary, (7) iucorrect spelling, (8) poor penmanship, (9) faulty
sentences, (10) defective punctuation, (11) errors in capitaliza-
tion, (12) carelessness in details. These imperfections, whether
they be matter or form, are injurious to the composition. The
writer should therefore repeatedly revise his production, and
the revision should be both critical and unsparing.

Correction. The author of a composition may be very con-
scientious in revision, and yet fail to perfect his composition.
It requires years of discipline to become an adept in the busi-
ness of composing. Until the composer has become a master
in his art, supervision and assistance must be added to re-
vision. In other words, a superior must point out imperfec-
tions and assist the writer in perfecting a composition.

B. INSTRUCTION IN COMPOSITION.

The teacher of composition, as we must infer from the
nature of the tasks in question, should understand (1) Super-
vision in Composition, (2) The Principles of Procedure, (3) The
Courses of Lessons, and (4) The Importance of Composition.

Supervision in Composition. The teacher's supervision
in composition, as we know from the tasks of the pupil, must
extend over (1) The Selection of a Subject, (2) The Cumula-
tion of Materials, (3) The Plan of Construction, (4) The Con-
struction of the Composition, and (5) The Finish.

Effective Selection of Subjects. There are three govern-
ing considerations in the selection of subjects for compositions :
(1) The subject should be suitable in itself; (2) The subject
should be suited to the writer's present powers ; and (3) The
subject should be suited to the occasion.

Effective Cumulation of Materials. Among the govern-
ing considerations in collecting thoughts and language for a
composition, are the following : (1) The method of cumulation
should be consistent with the nature of the subject. Within
the domain of experience, for example, observation is more

180 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

effective than reading. (2) The cumulation should be con-
sistent with the composer's constructive powers. The young
writer, for example, should not attempt to collect abstract and
general thoughts. (3) The cumulation should be consistent
with the purpose of the composition. The occasion, the intel-
ligence of the reader or hearer, etc., must be considered in
collecting materials of thought and language.

Effective Planning of the Composition. Among the
governing considerations in the plan of a composition are the
following : (1) The plan of construction should be consistent
with the species of composition to be constructed. The plan
of a story, for example, would not do for a thesis. (2) The
plan of construction should be the most suitable framework for
the materials to be employed in construction. It should be a
guide in collecting materials and a skeleton for the composi-
tion to be constructed. (3) The tentative plan used in collect-
ing materials should be critically revised until it becomes most
effective. When it has become a habit to plan compositions,
and to persevere in the efforts to find the best plan, great
progress has been made toward mastery in composition.

Effective Construction of the Composition. Among
the governing considerations, in writing out a composition,
are the following: (1) A composition should be constructed
in obedience to the plan of construction. Deviations should
be attempted only for good reasons. (2) The collected mate-
rials of thought should be arranged in the most effective way.
This requirement refers to the development of the paragraphs,
the possible arrangements being either inductive or deductive,
analytic, or synthetic. (3) The language of a composition
should be choice and effective. This requirement refers to the
selection of words, the structure of sentences, the figures of
speech, the taste in mechanical execution, the punctuation, the
capitals, etc. This is the domain of Style.

Diction. The selection and use of words, is termed Die-

COMPOSITION 181

tion. The effective qualities of diction are (1) Purity, (2)
Propriety, and (3) Precision. A word is pure when it is used
by the best writers and speakers. A word is appropriate when
it expresses the writer's meaning. A word is precise when it
expresses the writer's meaning exactly.

The Structure of Sentences. The arrangement of the words,
phrases, and clauses, of a sentence, is termed its Structure.
The desirable qualities of a sentence are, (1) Concord, (2)
Clearness, (3) Unity, (4) Energy, and (5) Harmony. A sen-
tence has Concord when it does not violate the laws of gram-
mar. A sentence has Clearness when its meaning cannot be
mistaken. A sentence has Unity when its parts are closely
related. A sentence has Energy when its words are so selected
and placed as to convey the thought with force. A sentence
has Harmony when its utterance is pleasant and suggestive to
the ear.

Figures of Speech. Deviations from the ordinary modes of
speech, are termed Figures of Speech. There are four species
of figures : (1) Figures of Orthography, (2) Figures of Ety-
mology, (3) Figures of Syntax, and (4) Figures of Rhetoric.
Expressions in which the mode of thought is changed, are
termed Figures of Rhetoric. Among the most desirable
figures of rhetoric are Simile, Metaphor, and Personification.
A Simile expresses the likeness of several objects, actions, or
relations. Ex. "Reason is to faith as the eye to the tele-
scope." A Metaphor implies the likeness of several objects,
actions, or relations. Ex. "Her smile was the dawn of a
radiant day." A Personification attributes life and mind to
beings that are not persons. Ex. " The very stones of Rome
will rise in mutiny." Figures of rhetoric, because of the
grace and force which they add to discourse, should be studied
and introduced with taste into composition. Reference to
some treatise on Rhetoric will be necessary in this task of
composition.

182 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Taste in Comjjosition. Appreciation of proprieties is termed
Taste. Good taste is a respect for beauty, sublimity, pathos, and
humor. Good taste in composition also respects mechanical
adaptations, such as places on the page, the uses of spaces, etc.

Punctuation and Capitals, etc. No composition is complete
unless its punctuation and capitals are correct. The details can-
not be enumerated here. The instructor in composition must
study these matters in some treatise on Rhetoric. The same
holds true of instruction in Prosody.

Effective Finish. The removal of imperfections that were
not noticed in writing out the composition, is termed Finish,
It corresponds to the process denoted by the same name in the
mechanical arts, such as architecture, sculpture, etc, EflPective
finish is the removal of all those crudities and blemishes that
offend good taste.

Principles of Instruction. The principles of instruction,
as stated in the chapter devoted to that purpose, are applica-
ble to all branches of study. Several of them (the Second and
Tenth) need to be emphasized in their application to composi-
tion. From the Second Principle of Instruction we derive the
following modified form : The learner should be led to see
how talking and writing are related. From the Tenth Prin-
ciple of Instruction we derive the following modified forms :
(1) Instruction in the art of language should precede instruc-
tion in the science of language ; (2) The art of language should
be perfected by the science of language ; and (3) The courses
of instruction in language should be graded from the simple to
the complex.

1. The learner should be led to see how talking and writing are
related. Children are inclined to think that composing is en-
tirely different from talking, and far more difficult. This
notion often causes them to dread composition, and to be un-
natural in their attempts to compose. It is therefore quite
important to correct all such notions. The pupils must be

COMPOSITION 183

made to see first of all that it is possible to torite thoughts as
well as to talk thoughts, and that writing and talking are
somewhat equivalent as modes of expressing tlioughts. This
point cleared up, it becomes evident to pupils that composing
is not an attempt to say what they do not know or cannot
think, but just the opposite. The relation of talking and
writing is best taught by requiring pupils to talk their thoughts
before writing them, and to write them just as they would talk
them.

2. Instruction in the art of language should precede instruc-
tion in the science of language. Unlettered people express their
thoughts in speech and writing without thinking of parts of
speech, rules of grammar, requirements of rhetoric, etc. Homer
wrote the Iliad without a knowledge of these requirements. It
is true enough, however, that such attempts are often crude
and imperfect. The desire to improve language as a vehicle
of thought, prompted inquiry into the structure of words, sen-
tences, etc. And thus in time the laws of language were ascer-
tained. In other words, the science of language was developed
from the art of language. Thus it becomes evident that in-
struction in the art of language should precede instruction in
the science of language. Indeed, this has become the govern-
ing principle in the construction of modern text-books on
grammar, rhetoric, etc. The introductory courses in these
branches are designed to develop imitative faculty in composi-
tion rather than critical insight.

3. The art of language should be perfected by the science of
language. Imitative faculty in composition is an inestimable
attainment, but critical insight is the necessary complement of
imitative faculty. In other words, the composer who can jus-
tify his imitations and correct imperfections by reference to
principles, is a superior workman. If, for example, a pupil
should punctuate a sentence as he has seen it punctuated, and
then give the reasons ; or, if he can correct errors In sentences,

184 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

and give the reasons according to grammar and rhetoric, he is
certainly more fortunate than a pupil who can only imitate
sentences, etc., without knowing the reasons or the principles
of language involved. It is evident, therefore, that a knowl-
edge of grammar, rhetoric, etc., are indispensable to mastery
in composition. Accordingly, the pupil should in due time
be led to see these principles, and to govern himself by them.
In short, the art of language should be perfected by the science
of language.

4. The courses of instruction in language should be graded
from the simple to the complex. According to the Tenth Prin-
ciple of Instruction, introductory courses, as well as subsequent
courses in any study, should require the learner to supplement
his observations by induction and deduction. There are two
governing considerations in the correct application of this prin-
ciple : (1) The stages of mental development should be ascer-
tained and respected. These stages of comparatively greater
functional activity and aptitude are, (1) The perceptive stage,
(2) The conceptive stage (memory, imagination, and general-
ization), and (3) The reflective stage (induction, deduction).
The teacher should ascertain the particular mental epoch at
which his pupil has arrived, and then adjust the tasks which
he assigns. In the perceptive epoch, for example, the exer-
cises in composition should not demand too much generaliza-
tion, and very little reflection. In the conceptive epoch the
tasks may become somewhat more abstract, and in the reflec-
tive epoch they should require inductive discovery of the prin-
ciples of composition and deductive conformity, as well as logi-
cal reflection on the subject of composition. (2) There should
be a progressive transition from simple to complex tasks in
composition. It is not enough that the adjustments recognize
perceptive, conceptive, and reflective epochs in composition,
and the relative preponderance of one aptitude over others in
each epoch. There must be a further adjustment within each

COMPOSITION 185

of these adjustments. The perceptive tasks, for example, must
be easy at first, and then more and more difficult. The same
prudence in assigning conceptive and reflective tasks is desira-
ble. In short, the courses of instruction in composition should
be graded from the simple to the complex. The following
courses are designed to satisfy these needs.

I. ELEMENTARY COUESE.

The tasks assigned to this course are intended for children
between the ages of six and twelve. It will be observed that
more perceptive activity is required at first, and then in-
creasingly more conceptive efibrt, but only a minimum of re-
flective attention. (First Principle of Instruction.) The tasks
are also more simple in themselves at first and more complex
at last. (Tenth Principle of Instruction.) These elementary
exercises need not come in the order here adopted, but should
be gradually so combined that every subsequent composition
will require the pupil to use all his previous attainments. It
should be remembered that the Elementary Course, as also the
Intermediate and Higher Courses, as here outlined, are only
outlines, and that they need to be supplemented by the teacher
in many ways.

1. Writing the names of objects. As soon as children can
write they should be required to write the names of objects :
the names of objects in the school-room ; objects to be found
on the school-grounds ; objects observed on the way to school ;
objects observed at home, etc. There should be system in this
exercise from the beginning. The names may be written in
columns, or in series, as follows :

1. Paul.

2. mother.

3. eyes. Or : Paul, mother, eyes, slate, dog.

4. slate.

5. dog.

186 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Proper care should be taken of neatness, spelling, numbers,
periods, commas, capitals, etc., as the pupil can understand
these matters. The pupil will need constant supervision.

2. Writing the names of actions. The pupil should be re-
quired to write the names of actions ; the names of ten things
that a frog, an owl, a bee, a mouse, a storm, or a cloud, have
been observed to do. This should be done according to the
directions that apply to writing the names of objects.

3. Wi'iting simple sentences. The pupil should be required
to write the names of objects joined to the names of their
actions ; as. Birds fly ; The cat mews ; A cloud moves. The
name of the object may be given, and the pupil required to add

the name of its action, or vice versa ; as, A fish ; A

swims. The pupil should be taught to call these sentences
telling, or Declarative, sentences. As soon as he knows how
to write these short Declarative sentences, and has formed the
habit of using the capital and period correctly, he should learn
to write asking, or Interrogative sentences ; commanding, or
Imperative sentences ; and feeling, or Exclamatory sentences.
Special attention to the differences in punctuation is important.
There should be plenty of practice and correction.

4. Supplying ellipses in simple sentences. The pupil should
be required to supply the words wanted in such sentences as

the following : Mabel lost hat. found my skates.

The rabbit was killed. Those cakes tasted . Mary

can run . May I go you ? John, be .

We saw Dora on the door-step. At first the pupil should

not know the words to be supplied as pronouns, adjectives, ad-
verbs, prepositions, participles, etc., but only as words needed
to complete the sentences. In due time the offices of the vari-
ous parts of speech can be taught by means of such ellipses.

5. Constructing simple sentences containing given words or
'phrases. The pupil should be required to construct simple
sentences containing given words or phrases. At first the sen-

COMPOSITION 187

tences should contain only one given word or phrase. The
words or phrases to be used may be written on the black-
board, and referred to the pupils. At first the pupil should
construct the sentences orally, in order that he may see what
is required of him in writing. When two or more words are
to be used, the teacher must select very carefully, so as not to
make the task too difficult at first. Phrases should not be in-
troduced until the pupil has acquired considerable skill with
words.

6. Copying and imitating sentences containing capitals, abbre-
viations, and punctuation, etc. When the pupil has acquired
satisfactory skill in constructing simple sentences that require
only final punctuation, and an occasional comma, he should
be introduced to simple sentences tliat require a number of
punctuation marks, abbreviations, and capitals. In due time
complex, and finally compound sentences, should be studied,
the mode of procedure being imitative.

The teacher may write suitable sentences on the black-board,
explain the punctuation marks, capitals, abbreviations, etc.,
that occur, require the pupils to explain these matters as well
as they can, and then to copy the sentences, first at sight, but
afterwards from memory, until they can do so without awk-
wardness or blunder. The pupils should be required to imi-
tate these copied sentences, i.e., to write original sentences in
which the punctuation, etc., is like that of the copied sen-
tences. Parts of complex and compound sentences may also
be given, and the pupils required to complete them ; as. If

Jane had not returned, . While

the house burned down. " A wise son maketh a glad

father ; but ."

The tasks here proposed require the teacher to understand
grammar and rhetoric. It is not maintained that these exer-
cises should be continued in an unbroken series until the whole
ground has been covered, but only that such a course ought to

188 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

be finished in due time and according to circumstances. The
more difficult lessons in punctuation, quotation, abbreviation,
etc., should evidently be deferred until grammar and rhetoric
are taken up in the regular way. The teacher should see to
it that the tasks which he assigns at this stage in composition
necessitate perceptive and recoUective attention, and concrete
judgment, but not much reflective effort, and very little origi-
nal effort.

7. Copying and correcting poems. While pupils are study-
ing punctuation, abbreviation, quotation, and capitals, as indi-
cated, they should also copy and correct poems. At first suit-
able poems should be copied from books put into the pupil's
hand. Afterwards the teacher should dictate concrete poems,
and require the children to copy these, taking care to get the
lines, capitals, marks, etc., right. When these exercises have
become easy, poems whose punctuation marks, capitals, etc.,
are incorrect, should be corrected by the pupils. Such ac-
counts of corrections as the pupils can give should be required,
and the teacher should tolerate no guessing. In due time the
more conspicuous distinctions between prose and poetry should
be studied ; but technical distinctions and abstractions should
be reserved for the rhetoric class.

8. Committing and reciting choice selections of prose and
poetry. In all the grades of our schools, the pupils should be
required to commit and recite choice selections of prose and
poetry. Only such extracts as, by reason of their literary and
moral excellence, deserve to become permanent mental posses-
sions, should be committed by the pupils. The teacher should
not allow these extracts to be recited in parrot fashion, but
thoughtfully. This thoughtfulness will become a habit, if
questions must be answered by the pupil in connection with
the recitations. The practice here advocated " will cultivate
a literary taste, which lies at the basis of all artistic excellence
in the use of language."

COMPOSITION 189

9. Constructing original sentences containing capitals, punctu-
ations, abbreviations, quotations, etc. The exercises described
in the foregoing paragraphs, required very little original think-
ing. In connection with these imitative lessons, corresponding
original tasks should be assigned. These original tasks should
increase in difficulty with the increasing maturity of the pupil.
As in the imitative lessons, and parallel with the stages of their
difficulty, so in these original tasks, the sentences should at first
be only simple in species ; but all the varieties of punctuation,
etc., should be cultivated. The pupils should be led to see how
a number of separate, but related sentences, can be reduced to
one sentence, either simple, complex, or compound. When
the pupils have observed the teacher doing so, they may be
required to do the same with analogous sentences, orally at
first, and then in writing. When it seems the right time to
cultivate originality in complex and compound sentences, the
teacher should take great pains to lead the pupils to see what
is wanted. Moreover, it is of the utmost importance to secure
the interest of the pupils. Patient practice in constructing
original sentences, simple, complex, and compound, is the in-
dispensable preparatory course in composition.

10. Writing simpjle letters. Long before the preceding ex-
ercises can be required in full, probably as soon as pupils have
acquired considerable skill in constructing simple sentences,
simple letters should be written. The teacher should first lead
the child to see what a letter is. This can be done by writing
illustrative letters on the blackboard, and explaining the parts.
The letters of children, as published in educational periodicals
and elsewhere, may also be read to them and inspected by them.
When properly supervised, pupils will soon become quite skil-
ful in writing accounts of personal experience, descriptions of
visits, etc. They should be encouraged to write to their rela-
tives and friends, expressing their thoughts just as they would
if they were conversing with them face to face. The arrange-

190 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

ment of the letter, the construction of sentences, the punctua-
tion, the spelling, etc., should be as perfect as possible. The
corrected letters should be copied and preserved in a book.

11. Describing objects. Pupils should be required to ob-
serve some object critically, and then to describe it truthfully.
Sometimes children cannot think of all that they know about
something. By means of appropriate questions, the child may
be led to think of his knowledge, and to discover more than
he could find out unaided. Children should also be required
to describe absent objects, or phenomena, such as a meadow, a
sunset, a wagon, a chestnut tree, a rabbit, etc. These exer-
cises develop accuracy and vigor in descriptive composition ;
and, in helping to establish the habit of critical observation,
they equip the pupil for subsequent investigations. Attention
to the thoughts to be expressed often causes the novice in com-
position to forget the requirements of grammar, rhetoric, and
penmanship, etc. Such carelessness should not be tolerated at
any time.

12. Describing actions. Pupils should be required to ob-
serve actions critically, and then to describe them truthfully.
The actions of a child, the movements of a horse, the perform-
ance of a trick, the confusions of an accident, etc., are suitable
subjects. Properly supervised, children will not only enjoy
these exercises, but acquire great ability in such description.
Appropriate questions are as important in these tasks as in the
description of objects. It may also be required of pupils at
this stage to write newspaper paragraphs. In order to show
the pupils what is wanted, the teacher may bring a newspaper
to school and read such paragraphs as will interest them, and
then require them to write little items in imitation of those in
the paper. In due time descriptions of current events should
follow. Accounts of floods, fires, storms, parades, conventions,
elections, inventions, discoveries, etc., are appropriate for older
pupils.

COMPOSITION 191

13. Describing pictures and basing stories on pictures. A
picture, as it is well known, appeals not only to the eye, but
also to the imagination of children. Pictures are accordingly
of great value in language lessons. The pupils should be re-
quired to observe a picture critically, and then to tell what
may be seen. Sometimes it may be necessary to ask questions
in order to lead the observer to find what is to be found. In-
asmuch as pictures appeal to the imagination, they may be em-
ployed to suggest stories. The children will readily invent
such stories provided the teacher starts the process and pre-
serves the thread by means of skilful questions and suggestions.
Appropriate pictures may be found in school-books, or brought
by teacher and pupils. The teacher should see to it that only
such pictures are used as are festhetically and morally fit.

14. Writing anecdotes and narratives. There is magic in
anecdotes and narratives. The young mind loves them ; the
old mind lives in them. The power to relate anecdotes and to
tell stories, is a most effective equipment in teaching language
lessons. There are three stages to observe in teaching anec-
dotes and stories : (1) At first the teacher should relate the
anecdote or tell the story, the pupils listening attentively all
through the procedure. Then the pupil, assisted by questions,
if that be necessary, should repeat the substance of the anecdote
or story, orally at first, and then in writing. (2) Anecdotes
and stories may be told in short sentences, either orally or in
writing. When the teacher has thus put the pupils on the
track, they should be required to expand these short sentences,
supplying what seems necessary to complete the structure.
(3) To older pupils only an outline should be submitted, and
they should be required to construct the story themselves.
This last task is quite difficult, inasmuch as it requires concep-
tive and inventive effort; but the exercise brings excellent
results.

Note. The incomparable stories of Grimm, Hans Christian

192 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Andersen, and other writers of stories for children, should be
studied by teachers, in order to imbibe the inspiration that
ought to belong to this species of instruction.

II. INTERMEDIATE COURSE.

(1) In the Elementary Course the stress was laid on per-
ceptive and recoUective efforts. The conceptions required in
that course were concrete. Inventive and reflective efforts, re-
quired within limits, were attentively supervised and greatly
assisted. (2) The Intermediate Course continues to require
the efforts of the Elementary Course, but introduces abstract
activity, and lays stress on reflective and inventive efforts.
Less assistance is offered to the pupil, and he is required to
depend a great deal upon his own resources. There is a tran-
sition from advisory to corrective and critical supervision.
The course is intended for pupils between twelve and eighteen
years of age. In graded schools, the Intermediate Course
should be completed sooner.

1. Writing the substance of reading lessons. It is an excel-
lent plan to require pupils to write the substance of their
reading lessons. This task may be required as a preparation
for intellectual reading, or as a direct exercise in composition
at stated times, say once or twice a week. There are several
merits in the exercise here advocated : (1) It promotes intel-
lectuality in reading ; and (2) It renders the transition from
the concrete to the abstract in composition easier. The second
result follows for three reasons : {a) The reading lesson fur-
nishes thoughts for composition ; (6) It furnished language ;
and (c) It furnishes thread or plan for the composition.

2. Writing the recitations in geography, history, observation
lessons, etc. Sometimes, if the class be small, the pupils may
be required to write instead of talk their recitations in geog-
raphy, history, etc. If the class be large, some members may
write their recitations while others recite orally. Apart from,

COMPOSITION 193

and in addition to, its direct benefit to geography, history, etc.,
this practice is an excellent exercise in composition. It re-
quires reflective as well as perceptive and recollective atten-
tion ; it cultivates conceptive ability in composition ; and it
tends to develop the habit of expressing thoughts in classical
language. Remissness in spelling, punctuation, capitals, apos-
trophes, etc., ought by no means to be tolerated.

3. Synopsis of lesso7is in reading, geography, history, etc.
Anatomically considered, a lesson is body and soul, as a man
is body and soul. The body in both cases is the soul's means
of revelation. It is an excellent exercise to discover the skele-
ton of this body in lessons assigned to pupils. It is through
analysis that this discovery must be made. As soon as a pupil
becomes able to analyze his lessons in reading, history, etc.,
into their skeletons, he is prepared to plan skeletons of his own
for compositions of his own. He will then also understand
and appreciate synopses. Teachers should therefore require
pupils to analyze their lessons until the ability to do so de-
velops into habit and inventive tendency. These synopses
should be written on paper, slate, or board, and then criticised
and improved.

4. Writing all sorts of letters. When the pupil has arrived
at a proper age, he should be required to write all sorts of let-
ters. The species of letters to be cultivated in the common
schools are as follows : (1) Letters of Friendship, (2) Letters
of Business, (3) Official Letters, (4) Didactic Letters, (5) Let-
ters of Introduction, (6) News Letters, (7) Notes of Invitation
and Acceptance, (8) Excuses, (9) Applications. To this list
might be added Legal Papers, such as Promissory Notes, Due
Bills, Checks, etc.

Models should be studied, and imitated with intelligence.
The parts of a letter should be understood in all their varieties
and proprieties. It is to be deplored that so many boys and
girls cannot write neat and sensible letters when they quit

13

194 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

school. It should be considered discreditable to teachers if
they fail to train their proteges in these matters. The first
necessity in performing this duty is to study some standard
author on letter writing. The teacher who fails to do this
cannot do good work. Westlake's little book on " How to
Write Letters," or, Hill's " Elements of Rhetoric and Compo-
eition," is recommended.

5. Converting poetry into prose, and proverbs into essays.
The poets give us great thoughts in " verse." Philosophers
condense the wisdom of the world into concise sentences termed
proverbs. (1) For pupils whose ability to reflect has been
sufiiciently matured, the efibrt to convert verse into prose is a
most effective exercise in composition. In this exercise the
poet's thoughts and words become the pupil's thoughts and
words, but the structure of prose is required to be original.
The literary taste thus developed becomes original tendency
and habit in the pupils. (2) The effort to expand a proverb
into an essay is a very excellent exercise in abstract and re-
flective composition. It requires keen analysis to pierce to
the core of many proverbs, and constructive effort, abstract
and reflective, to expand them into essays. Thus it follows
that the practice of converting poetry into prose, and proverbs
into essays, develops that comprehensive understanding which
is so much to be coveted in mature compositions. Teachers
should therefore collect and grade appropriate poems and
proverbs for the purposes indicated.

6. Elementary lessons in diction, sentence-qualities, and figures
of rhetoric. A regular training in rhetoric may be out of the
question for many common schools ; but older boys and girls
should certainly know the desirable qualities of vocabulary and
sentences, and the common figures of rhetoric. The following
exercises are recommended : (1) The pupils should be required
to observe illustrative sentences, in order to discover how the
desirable qualities of vocabulary and sentences are secured,

COMPOSITION 195

and in order to see the force of rhetorical figures. (2) The
pupils should be required to commit such representative sen-
tences as will subsequently serve for models. (3) The pupils
should be required to construct sentences in imitation of those
which have been studied as models. (4) Original sentences
should be criticised and corrected. Reference to dictionaries
and rhetorics will be necessary. The teacher should under-
stand his business.

7. Original Exercises. A time should come when pupils
should depend almost altogether on their own resources in com-
position. (Eighth Principle of Instruction.) Adequate super-
vision must, however, prepare for this emancipation in com-
position. In other words, pupils in original composition need
a teacher's instructions and suggestions in the following tasks :

(1) The Selection of Subjects; (2) The Cumulation of Mate-
rials ; (3) The Acquisition of Vocabulary ; (4) The Acquisi-
tion of Style ; (5) The Plan of Construction ; (6) The Con-
struction of the Composition ; and (7) The Finish. The
teacher's duties and the right modes of procedure, are as
follows :

(1) The Selection of Subjects. The governing considerations
in the selection of subjects have already been noticed. (See
page 179.) It is evident that only mature minds can select
subjects in accordance with these requirements. Therefore it
devolves on the teacher to select subjects for young pupils.
If young pupils are allowed to select subjects for composition,
the following results are likely : (1) Impropriety of choice;

(2) "Waste of time by embarrassment ; and (3) Plagiarism.
On the other hand, if pupils are not required to rely on

their own best judgment in selecting subjects, their individu-
ality will be sacrificed. This result must be avoided. In
order to avoid this sacrifice, several appropriate subjects should
be selected by the teacher and proposed to the class. The
teacher should ask questions and converse with the pupils on

196 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

these subjects, until ibey can choose for themselves. Two
points are thus gained : (1) The pupil's independence is not
sacrificed, but his individuality is cultivated. (2) Interest in
the chosen subject is stimulated, and the pupil will perform
his task with energ}^ and purpose.

In due time, of course, the pupil should be required to
select his own subjects in accordance with the governing
considerations. But even mature pupils may be required to
write on subjects assigned by the teacher, especially in cases
when the compositions are to be considered as evidence of pro-
ficiency in some department of study. Graduating theses are
illustrations. In such cases the students should be required
to select subjects, hand them in according to appointment,
and accept the approval of the teacher. The propriety of this
course is obvious : (1) Desirable variety of subjects is secured;
(2) The liability of plagiarism is lessened ; and (3) The indi-
viduality of the pupil is guarded against possible caprice.

Pupils should be taught to state the subject of a composition
in the most fitting words. Conciseness and precision should
be cultivated. Though attractiveness of statement is effective,
it should never be attempted at the sacrifice of true dignity
and simplicity.

The ability to adjust subjects to the present powers of the
pupil, is to be greatly coveted by the teacher. On his success
in this task, will depend the degree of interest in composition
and his consequent success as a teacher of composition. The
teacher that fails in the task of supervising the selection of
subjects, will make his pupils hate composition. This hatred
is generally fatal.

(2) Cumulation of Materials. The governing considera-
tions in the cumulation of ideas, thoughts, sentiments, etc.,
have already been noticed. (See page 179). It devolves on
the teacher to cultivate obedience to these requirements on the
part of the pupils. The possible modes of cumulating mate-

COMPOSITION 197

rials for composition are as follows : (1) Observation, (2) Con-
versation, (3) Reading, (4) Imagination, and (5) Reflection.

Within the domain of the pupil's past and possible ex-
perience, the teacher must insist on Observation as the first
source of ideas. The experiences of others may be ascertained
by Conversation; or, if that be impracticable, by Reading,
The habit of Imagining personages, places, events, experi-
ences, possibilities, etc., should be cultivated in pupils. It
was this habit of giving " to airy nothings a local habita-
tion and a name," that made Shakespeare and Dickens such
charming writers. Pupils should, however, be taught to Re-
flect as well as to observe, converse, read, and imagine. The
habit of forming opinions should be encouraged. The ability
to discover causes, laws, and effects, should be developed in
older pupils. Taste for science and philosophy should be
stimulated in capable students as soon as they become mature
enough. Comprehensive scholarship, maturity of thought,
and refinement in taste, are proper ideals in adult composers.

(3) The Acquisition of Vocabulary. The first necessity in
composition is " something to say" ; but it is through lan-
guage that this something must be said. Therefore it is
necessary to acquire a vocabulary and the ability to construct
suitable sentences. There are various ways of increasing and
improving one's vocabulary. Among others are the follow-
ing : (1) Association, (2) Lists of Words, (3) Use of the
Dictionary, (4) Reading, (5) Translating, and (6) Choice of
Words.

The words used by associates tend to cling to memory, as
burrs cling to a dress. This is especially true of children,
who often surprise us by their use of words "just picked up
anywhere." Indeed, it is possible for a child to learn to con-
verse in several languages before it comes to school at all, pro-
vided it has the opportunity to hear these languages and use
them. The child whose teacher and other associates use a

198 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

large and choice vocabulary will acquire this vocabulary as if
by instinct. It is a serious misfortune to associate with peo-
ple who are careless in speaking, or to attend a school whose
teacher cannot talk.

It is a good plan to make and keep a list of the new words
met in lessons, general reading, conversation, speeches, etc.
This habit should be formed in early youth, and kept up
through life. The words thus catalogued and looked up in
the dictionary, should be used in speaking and composing.
Frequent review will keep these words at the end of our
fingers and tongue. In this way our vocabulary, which is
much smaller than most people suspect, can be greatly in-
creased and permanently improved.

It is to be deplored that so many pupils neglect to look for
the meanings and uses, as well as the pronunciation, of the
words which they meet in their books and elsewhere, and it is
even more deplorable that so many teachers do not insist on
this habit both in themselves and in their pupils. If it be
within his means, every student should own some standard
dictionary, and make it his constant companion in study.
" This was the habit of some of the most accomplished schol-
ars and writers. Charles Sumner was a most assiduous stu-
dent of the dictionary. He had several copies in his library in
constant use, and usually carried a pocket edition with him ;
and they were found, after his death, to be the most thumbed
of any of his books. Lord Chatham went twice through the
largest English dictionary, studying the meaning of each word
and its various uses."

In order to acquire a precise and copious vocabulary, the
student must read the masters in English literature, such as
Addison, Washington Irving, Tennyson, etc. These masters
put meanings into words and phrases, whose delicate shades
the ordinary mind would never even suspect. The disciple
of such masters cannot but improve at their feet.

COMPOSITION 199

Apart from tlie fact that translating foreign languages, espe-
cially the classic Greek and Latin, tends to make students
idealists, it increases and improves their English vocabulary.
The translator must consult a lexicon in order to find the
corresponding English words into which a foreign word may
be translated, and then, from a number of alternatives, he
must select that English word which will best express the
meaning of the foreign word. It is in this way that his Eng-
lish vocabulary increases and improves, even if he should in a
short time forget all the foreign words.

The pupil should be taught to prefer short words to long
words. It is not a literary sin to use long words when short
words cannot be found or when these do not express the in-
tended meanings ; but the impression that long words indi-
cate profundity of mind, is a delusion which the teacher
should dispel as soon as possible. There should be a severe
simplicity in our choice of words. The Anglo-Saxon vocab-
ulary, of which the English Bible, as well as " Pilgrim's Prog-
ress" and " Robinson Crusoe," are good examples, is far more
expressive, and far less cumbersome, than the corresponding
words derived from foreign languages.

(4) The Acquisition of Style. A large and expressive vocab-
ulary is a most desirable acquisition, but it must»be supple-
mented by the ability to construct sentences according to the
rules of grammar and rhetoric. There are various ways of
acquiring an effective English style. The following practices
are recommended : (1) General reading, (2) Copying the sen-
tences of the Masters, (3) Committing choice extracts of prose
and poetry ; and (4) Declaiming choice selections.

Pupils who read a great deal are usually better composers
than other pupils, however bright the latter may be. The
practice of copying sentences makes their structure familiar
and in time impresses the style on the one who copies them.
The practice of committing is still more impressive, inasmuch

200 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

as the amount of effort is greater in committing than in copy-
ing. The old practice of declaiming on Friday afternoons is
a good practice. The prospect of an audience, and the desire
to deserve praise, stimulate an intensity in committing selec-
tions, that will impress them deeply.

(5) The Plan of Construction. The governing considera-
tions in planning a composition have already been noticed.
(See page 180.) It is the teacher's duty to lead the way in
■this task of his pupils, as well as in other tasks. The impor-
tance of outlines should be pointed out, and the habit of
making them should be developed in pupils in due time. The
formation of outlines is a very awkward business at first ; but, if
wisely superintended, it soon becomes a pleasure. The teacher
can do the following things : (1) He can teach the pupils how
to ask themselves questions on some subject, such as Frogs, or
Stars. (2) He can teach the pupils how to convert these ques-
tions into an outline. (3) He can write out a composition
according to outline, while the pupils observe him. In this
way they will see what use to make of an outline. (4) He
can revise outlines formed by the pupils, showing them where
they went wrong, and how to avoid the mistake in the future.

There should be a great deal of practice in the formation
of outlines. An outline lesson may sometimes take the place
of a composition, the pupils being required to construct the
outlines on the board, slates, or paper, and corrections follow-
ing according to the teacher's judgment.

(6) Wnting the Composition. The form- features in the
structure of a composition were described on page 177. It
devolves on the teacher to insist on these matters. The pupils
should be led to see just what is w^anted, and also the impor-
tance of strictness in these form-features of a composition.
Carelessness in the mechanical execution of a composition is
not only an offense to good taste ; it also renders the completed
structure an imperfect vehicle of thought.

COMPOSITION 201

The teacher should try to develop in his pupils the habit of
writing at times and under circumstances that are most appro-
priate to the task of writing. The habit of " brooding over"
a subject until thoughts come and flow, should be encouraged.
The writer should be taught how, by means of questions put
to himself, he may work himself into the mood to write, and
he should be encouraged to take true pride in the power to say
things worth saying. Pupils should be led to see how impor-
tant it is to write a composition over again and again until it
becomes as concise and precise as it should be, and until the
various requirements of grammar, rhetoric, and logic, have
been met. Young writers are loth to destroy their first prod-
ucts, fondly believing that it will break their heart to give up
anything they have said. This delusion must be corrected.

(7) Collection. The necessity of corrective supervision over
pupils in composition, was noticed on page 179. The imper-
fections in the compositions of beginners should be corrected
by the teacher himself. The corrections should be explained to
pupils, care being taken not to discourage the writers. The
compositions should then be read by the pupils, and copied in
a suitable book for future reference.

In the case of older pupils the teacher should adopt a sys-
tem of abbreviations by which to indicate necessary corrections.
The pupils should understand these abbreviations, or symbols,
thoroughly, and make the corrections accordingly. The cor-
rected compositions should be read by the writer, at such time
as the teacher may appoint, after which they should be copied
in a suitable book for future reference. The preservation of
compositions will develop the habit of comparing former and
later products, thus serving as a stimulus to better efforts. The
day on which the compositions are read should be a frequent
and welcome day in every school. The inventive teacher will
throw great interest into the exercises of " Composition Day,"
converting dull routine into a literary feast. The exercises of

202 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

" Composition Day" may include all the exercises of a good
literary society, the pupils being members and officers.

III. HIGHER COURSE.

In this course the student is required to aim at perfection in
his art. He must try to find subjects that have something
characteristic in them, and develop them in harmony with the
principles of thought and language. He must try to appro-
priate the inspirations of the Masters in literature, but develop
his own individuality to the utmost. Every composition must
be subjected to scientific criticism. (Hill's "Elements of
Ehetoric and Composition," pages 135 to 160.) It is the
function of such a course to develop authors, journalists,
teachers of literature, ministers, lecturers, etc.

The requisites of higher composition are as follows: (1)
Criticism of the Masterpieces of English literature ; (2) In-
quiry into the relations of thought and language ; (3) The ap-
plication of principles of the relations of thought and language ;
and (4) Criticism of original compositions.

IV. IMPORTANCE OF COMPOSITION.

The art of composition deserves the most earnest cultiva-
tion. The results of practice in composition are as follows :
(1) The Functional Improvement of the Mind ; (2) Increase
of Knowledge ; and (3) Practical Equipment.

Functional Improvement of the Mind. The selection
of subjects, the accumulation of materials, the invention of plan
of construction, the completion of the structure, the critical re-
vision, the correction, etc., require all the possible species of
mental activity. (See " Mental Activity.") All the ends of
mental development may be attained in composition ; namely,
(1) Greater functional activity; (2) Greater functional power;
(3) Right habits ; and (4) Correct tastes.

COMPOSITION 203

Increase of Knowledge. In composition there must be
" something to say" and language with which to say it. The
acquisition of ideas, thoughts, vocabulary, style, etc., is there-
fore a necessity. Thus practice in composition necessitates in-
crease in knowledge. The knowledge acquired is derived from
all the domains of thought, according to the supervision of the
teacher, or the preference of the pupil.

Practical Equipment. Skill in composition is a valuable
equipment in the affairs of life. The ability to write a letter
is a commercial advantage and a social accomplishment. In-
deed, the master in composition is able to live by his art, and
is a prince among men. Journalism, authorship, etc., are
among the most powerful agencies in modern civilization.

204 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

CHAPTER VII.

GRAMMAR.

The true object of instruction is to cause right mental
processes in pupils, (See the Principles of Instruction.) It
is obvious that, in order to cause the right mental processes in
teaching any branch of study, the teacher must know those
processes. Therefore, the pedagogics of grammar is concerned
with two general topics : (1) The Nature of Grammar ; and
(2) Instruction in Grammar.

A. THE NATURE OP GRAMMAR.
The nature of grammar is most conveniently studied under
three heads : (1) The Subject of Grammar ; (2) The Psychology
of Grammar ; and (3) The History of Grammar.

I. THE "SUBJECT" OF GRAMMAR.

In the sense in which physiology is the study of the body,
grammar is the study of " words in sentences."

Words in Sentences. It is not with isolated words, but
with words as parts of sentences that grammar is concerned.
Differences of function and relation require variations in the
spelling and placing of words. Therefore, inquiry into these
differences of function and relation, is the essential to insight
into the formation of sentences, which insight is the ultimate
object of grammar. Thus we see that, although grammar
must encroach upon the domain of orthography, and rise into
the sphere of prosody, its special territory is a limited domain
in etymology, enriched by syntax.

Orthography. Grammar consists of only so much orthog-
raphy as is required in the interest of forming sentences.
When, for example, the time to which the thought of a sen-

GEAMMAE 205

tence is referred, is past, the distinction is denoted by a varia-
tion in the spelling of the predicate.

Etymology. In its widest sense etymology is concerned not
only with the functions of words, but also with their history.
But grammar is etymology only in so far as it is concerned
with the functions, properties, and relations of words in sen-
tences.

Syntax. The etymology of which grammar consists is en-
riched by the fact that v/ords are parts of sentences. This
distinction, indeed, is the justification of grammar as a sj^ecial
study. Take, for example, the sentence, " Tlie handsome man
that rode in the king's chariot, M^as slain by a woman." Jn
this sentence the function, several properties, and a distinctive
relation of the word " that," are determined by the sentence
of which it is a logical element. This enriching inquiry into
the formation of sentences is termed Syntax.

Rhetoric. Rhetoric is concerned with such problems as
punctuation, capitalization, diction, sentence-qualities, figures
of rhetoric, poetry, etc. Inasmuch as punctuation, capitaliza-
tion, choice of words, and arrangement of the parts of a sen-
tence, are practically indispensable in the formation of sentences,
these topics should never be divorced from their connections.
To this extent grammar employs rhetoric. In due time,
"composition," i.e., the combination of sentences, brings all
the higher concerns of rhetoric and logic into grammar.

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF GEAMMAE.

The ideal method of studying " words in sentences," as well
as plants or animals, or any other subject, consists of observa-
tion, induction, and deduction. (See the Tenth Principle of
Instruction.)

Observation in Grammar. The first step in the formal
study of " words in sentences" is observation, i.e., the ascer-
tainment of facts. The observer in grammar must examine

206 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

sentences just as observers in botany examine flowers, i.e., he
must look for parts, properties, relations, etc. In language
as in other spheres instances are generally individuals of a
genus, and therefore sugges.tive of laws. But there are many
irregularities in language. Therefore the observer should ex-
amine many instances before he ventures to generalize, lest the
generalizations have insufficient grounds. If, for example, the
student of grammar wishes to study pronouns, he must make
as large a collection of pronouns as possible, and observe them
as used in sentences.

Induction in Grammar. The second step in the formal
study of " words in sentences," is induction, i.e., the ascertain-
ment of laws. Inasmucli as instances in language are gener-
ally individuals of a genus, induction begins with the justifi-
able hypothesis that what was found true in particular may
also be true in general. The distinctive object of induction in
the larger sense, is to verify such hypotheses. In order to
accomplish this purpose, the observer must gather sentences
from all sources and offer them as evidence. Should irregu-
larities be discovered in the sentences offered, the hypothesis
must be either corrected or abandoned ; but if all the offered
sentences confirm the hypothesis, it is accepted as law. If, for
example, the student of etymological grammar wishes to ascer-
tain into how many parts of speech the English language must
be classified, or what case prepositions govern, he gathers evi-
dences from various sources, proving, as he can in these cases,
that there are no exceptions to his hypotheses. Proceeding
in the same way in syntax, he finds that the rule of agreement
of subject and predicate has several exceptions, which he there-
fore records, and thus corrects his hypothesis. This method
of discovery, since it is both historical and rational, is the ideal
method of ascertaining all the general truths of grammar,
whether it be in orthography, etymology, syntax, or prosody.
It should be made the habit of all students.

GRAMMAR 207

Deduction in Grammar. The final step in the formal
study of " words in sentences/' is deduction, i.e., the classifi-
cation of individual words and parts of sentences, and their use
according to discovered laws. There are three distinct de-
ductive processes in grammar : (1) Parsing ; (2) Analysis, and
(3) Construction of Sentences.

Parsing. The comparison of a sentence-word with the
concepts of its objective function and relations, i.e., with the
concepts of etymology, is termed Parsing. The language by
means of which these deductive explanations are made, re-
quires many technical terms, such as noun, gender, tense,
voice, etc.

Analysis. The comparison of sentence-parts with the con-
cepts of their logical functions and relations, i.e., with the
concepts of syntax, is termed Analysis. The language of
these deductive explanations of a sentence, as well as the lan-
guage of parsing, requires technical terms, such as subject,
predicate, adjuncts, etc.

Construction of Sentences. (1) Faulty sentences may be
corrected, i.e., made to conform with violated laws. Such
deductive reformation of sentences is commonly known as
the correction of false syntax. (2) Original sentences may
be constructed in conformity with the laws of grammar.
Such deductive formation of sentences, the supreme end in
view in the study of grammar, is commonly known as true
syntax.

The Definition of Grammar. The method of study just
described, together with a systematic statement of truths, con-
stitutes science. Grammar is therefore a science ; and, since
its subject is " words in sentences," it is correctly defined as
the science of " words in sentences," or, simply, the science of
sentences. But, as a systematic guide to usage, grammar is
also an art, and may be so defined. Accordingly, grammar is
the science and art of sentences.

208 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

III. THE HISTORY OF GRAMMAR.

The history of grammar is conveniently studied under the
following heads : (1) The Development of Grammar ; (2) Text-
Books of Grammar ; and (3) The Popularity of Grammar.

The Development of Grammar. A complete history of
developments in grammar, though essential in a course of gen-
eral grammar, would require too much space for our present
purpose, and could hardly be justified by the demand. A
brief account, however, seems necessary at this time.

The Hindoos and Greeks were the pioneers in grammar.
(1) "Among the Hindoos the science of grammar arose in im-
mediate connection with the study and interpretation of their
sacred books, and served the main purpose of explaining and
of maintaining in purity of form the ancient or classical lan-
guage, the Sanskrit, which had ceased to be the language of
the people and was regarded as the peculiar property of the
priestly class." (2) Among the Greeks the beginnings of
grammar are found in the works of the philosophers. The
parts of speech were partly identified and defined by Aristotle,
and additions were made by the Stoics. It was not until the
second century before Christ that Alexandrian scholars devel-
oped a complete system of Greek grammar. In preparing
correct texts of the Greek classics, especially of Homer, these
scholars found that the manuscripts differed, and then deter-
mined the correct form by comparison v/ith the language of
Homer. (3) Modern developments in grammar consist chiefly
of expansions, superstructures, rational correlation of depart-
ments, practical applications, and improvements in presenta-
tion. The long domination of humanism in education has
made grammar almost as exact a science as mathematics.

The Text-Books of Grammar. Great changes of content
and method have been introduced into the text-books of gram-
mar since the time of Zenodotus and Aristarchus, the great

GRAMMAR 209

grammarians of Alexandria. The little handbook of Diony-
sius Thrax^ a pupil of Aristarchus, was " the basis for all the
Greek grammars down almost to modern times/' and, through
its virtual use by Chrysoloras and the Renaissance scholars, it
determined the traditions of school grammars for all Euro-
pean languages ; but the old Dionysius became more and more
portly and precise. The Romans left the science of gram-
mar largely to Greek scholars. Terence, a contemporary of
Cicero, is famous for his reports concerning the materials of
the older Latin and the Italic dialects. An introduction to
Lilly's Latin Grammar, by John Colet, published in 1510,
and the exclusive standard in England for more than three
centuries, was the first attempt at English grammar. In
1586, William Bullokar wrote an exclusively English gram-
mar. "In 1758, Bishop Lowth published his celebrated
grammar, an excellent work from which Lindley Murray
drew most of his materials. Lindley Murray published his
first grammar in 1795, and his Abridgement in 1797, a work
which has been extensively used in this country and in Eng-
land. This popular work was largely derived from Lowth
and Priestly, and owed its popularity to its practical adapta-
tion to the work of the school- room." Goold Brown's s:ram-
mar is probably the ablest and most celebrated American work.
Among the many excellent grammars of our own times are
those of Dr. Lyte, Dr. Welsh, and others.

The Popularity of Grammar. From the time of its first
introduction, grammar has occupied an important place in
schools. The Renaissance made grammar a necessity, and
the long domination of humanism in education (see Painter's
" History of Education") kept " the first of the seven liberal
arts," first in honor down to modern times. America is not
far behind in its respectful attitude toward formal grammar.
It has long been looked upon as the disciplinary study par exceJ-
lence, not only in elementary, but also in secondary education.

14

210 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

For fuller presentations of the history of grammar, methods-
students are respectfully referred to Johnson's " Universal
Cyclopsedia," "The Cyclopsedia Britannica," "The Century
Dictionary/' etc.

B. INSTRUCTION IN GRAMMAR.

The nature of grammar makes inquiry into the following
subjects a necessity for teachers of grammar : (1) The Courses
of Instruction in Grammar ; (2) The Special Objects of the
Courses; (3) The Subjects of Study; (4) The Methods of
Instruction ; and (5) The Importance of Grammar.

I. THE COURSES OF INSTRUCTION IN GRAMMAR.

The number of necessary adaptations of the subject and
method of grammar to the powers and needs of pupils^ deter-
mines, as it does in other branches, the number and character
of the courses of instruction. (See the Principles of Instruc-
tion.) The following topics, therefore, deserve special atten-
tion : (1) The Nature of the Subject; (2) The Pupil in Gram-
mar ; and (3) The Number of Courses in Grammar.

The Nature of the Subject. In grammar, consisting as
it does practically of etymology and syntax, there are two
species of necessary judgments. (1) The judgments of ety-
mology are objective, i.e., they have to do with the various ob-
jects of thought as classified in the parts of speech. (2) The
judgments of syntax are subjective, i.e., they have to do with
thoughts themselves. There is, however, an important dis-
tinction between direct comparison and syllogism. (See the
chapter on Mental Activity.)

The Pupil in Grammar. Objective judgments are possi-
ble before subjective judgments. (See Principles of Knowl-
edge.) Tbey are necessary stepping-stones in abstraction.
Subjective judgments presuppose considerable maturity in re-

GRAMMAR 211

flection. The syntax of simple sentences, as the history of
grammar shows, follows etymology as a natural sequence, and
is only slightly more difficult. The syntax of complex and
compound sentences consists of anatomic analysis and synthe-
sis of syllogisms, and thus requires a maturity in logical
thought to which few pupils attain before the high school
epoch. The anomalies and subtleties of which the structure
of English sentences often consists, require a keenness of analy-
sis and a maturity in language to which few can attain before
the college epoch.

The Number of Courses in Grammar. In view of the
psychology of grammar and the powers of pupils, it seems ap-
propriate to arrange three courses of instruction in grammar :
(1) The elementary course for etymology and the simple sen-
tence ; (2) The intermediate course for complete etymology,
and the complex and compound sentences ; and (3) The higher
course for anomalies and subtleties in English classics.

II. ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

The distinctive features of any course of instruction come
to view as ends to be accomplished, ground to be covered, or
methods of work. (See Principles of Instruction.) The fol-
lowing topics, therefore, deserve attention at this point: (1)
The Objects of Elementary Grammar ; (2) Its Subjects ; and
(3) The Methods of Instruction.

The Objects of Elementary Grammar. The subjective
judgments so important as reinforcements of etymology in
elementary grammar (see Courses in Grammar), require a
maturity of mind seldom found in pupils prior to their seventh
year in school. In the two years of the grammar school epoch
which thus remain, many elementary inductions and corre-
sponding deductions in grammar can be successfully accom-
plished.

The Inductions of Elementary Gh-ammar. (1 ) The technical

212 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

names of the concepts of grammar, as noun, tense, modifierj
should, as a matter of economy, be taught from the beginning.
(2) The pupil of elementary grammar should seldom, if ever
(see the Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Tenth Principles of In-
struction), be allowed to use definitions which were not devel-
oped in his own mind. The ability to describe a concept in
original language, is the best proof that the pupil knows the
thing in question. The danger of putting a text-book in the
hands of pupils in elementary grammar, is, therefore, very
great. (3) The concepts of relation (agreement, government,
etc.) should be expanded into laws, and expressed in the form
of rules. This process, like that of definition in grammar,
presupposes considerable mental maturity, and requires great
skill in .teachers. The rules, like the definitions of element-
ary grammar, should at first be expressed in the pupil's own
language.

The Deductions of Elementary Grammar. In order to
make the concepts of elementary grammar permanent posses-
sions of the pupil's mind, to enlarge them, and to cultivate
the habit of deductive or practical judgment in language,
words in sentences should be parsed, the sentences analyzed,
incomplete sentences completed, defective sentences corrected,
and original sentences constructed. (See the First, Second,
Fourth, and Eighth Principles of Instruction.) This neces-
sary work should, of course, be as informal as possible, and
yet as systematic as possible.

The Subjects of Elementary Grammar. Regard for
logical sequence requires that a definite order be observed in
passing from subject to subject in grammar, as in any other
branch of study. (See the chapter on The Nature of Knowl-
edge.)

The Order of Subjects in Elementary Grammar. (1) The
most objective, and therefore the most elementary task in
grammar, is to classify words into parts of speech. This task

GRAMMAE 218

does not presuppose analytic knowledge of sentences. (2)
After the noun, verb, adjective, and adverb have been taught
as parts of speech, they should be presented as subject, predi-
cate, and modifiers in sentences. (3) All the parts of speech
should then be taught in their first form in sentences. (4)
The properties and modifications of the parts of speech should
then be introduced as variations in sentence relations. (5)
The classes of the parts of speech, with the exception perhaps
of common and proper nouns, and personal pronouns, can be
understood only when the properties of the parts of speech
and the anatomy of sentences have been taught. Some classes,
as the relative prououn, cannot be fully taught until the com-
plex sentence has been introduced. (6) Complex and com-
pound sentences whose thought relations are obvious, should,
as a reinforcement of etymology, be introduced in the second
year of grammar. (7) The development of a new concept or
rule should always be followed by such informal parsing and
analyzing as may be possible. The sentences used in these
exercises may be invented by the teacher or selected from the
pupil's reading book. (8) Practice in reforming, completing,
and constructing sentences, should be connected with the de-
velopment of rules. The exercise of completing sentences,
though it may require more labor on the part of the teacher,
since he must prepare them with such omissions as may
serve the ends in view, is more effective in the formation of
right habits than the exercise of correcting sentences. The
latter is as likely to impress errors as truths. Nevertheless,
the incorrect sentences used by pupils should be subjected to
most careful reconstruction.

The Number of Subjects in Elementary Grammar. Just
how much ground to cover in two years of elementary gram-
mar, must, of course, depend much upon the capacity of the
class and the skill of the teacher. It does not seem necessary,
however, nor desirable, to teach all the concepts and rules of

214 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

grammar, even in their most elementary phases. Much of this
work can be done with greater satisfaction in the intermediate
course.

The Method of Instruction in Elementary Grammar.
The ideal method of study, as already pointed out, consists of
observation, induction, and deduction, in the order just sub-
mitted. The ideal method of instruction (see Principles of
Instruction) should, therefore, cause these mental processes in
the pupil.

The Method of Observation in Elementary Grammar. Ex-
amples of that which is to be taught must be presented to the
pupil's attention. The pupil's inquiry must be assisted by
means of questions, hints, etc. In this way the elementary
facts of grammar may be taught.

The Method of Induction in Elementary Grammar. Many
instances of that which is to be taught must be presented to
the child's attention. Such questions, hints, etc., as may help
the pupil to see that what is true of instances is generally true,
must be added with great care. The pupil will need the
teacher's constant guidance in the original definitions, original
statement of rules, and original illustrations, which must be
required as the necessary discipline in induction.

The Method of Deduction in Elementary Grammar. The
difficulties in parsing, analyzing, etc., as they present them-
selves in elementary grammar, must be divided and adapted
to the pupil's power. The necessary concepts in these deduc-
tive judgments must be kept perfect in the pupil's mind, lest
confusion should result. Sentences in which the ideas are too
abstract and general, or the thought too complex, must, of
course, be avoided in elementary deductions.

Illustrative Lessons in Elementary Grammar. The
following lessons are subjoined as illustrations of the method
just described. They are designed as suggestions, and should
not be slavishly imitated by methods-students.

GRAMMAE 215

The Concept " Noun." Teacher. Please name five objects,
James. J. Box, hat, pencil, chair, apple. T. Since these
words are names of objects, what may we call them, Kate?
K. Perhaps we may call them object-words. T. What then
is an object-word ? K. An object- word is the name of an ob-
ject. T. An object-word may be called a Noun. Who can
define a noun ? James. The name of an object is called a
'Noun. T. Please find the noims in this sentence (writing it
on the board). Write the nouns of your yesterday's reading
lesson, and bring the list to-morrow morning. (The complete
definition should be developed in the next few lessons.)

The Concept " Verb." Teacher. Nell, what do birds do ?
N. Birds sing, fly, eat, drink. T. Since these words are the
names of actions, what may we call them ? Robert. Action-
words. T. What then is an action-word ? R. The name of
an action is called an action-word. T. An action-word may
be called a verb. Who can define a verb ? Emily. The name
of an action is called a Verb. T. Please find the verbs in this
sentence (writing it). Make a list of verbs in your reading
lesson of yesterday, and bring the list to-morrow morning.
(The complete definition should be taught in the following
lessons.)

The Concept "Adjective." Teacher. Are these objects
in all respects alike ? Alfred. The pencil is round and black ;
the ruler is flat and brown. T. Since the ^vords round, black,
flat, and brown name the qualities of objects, what may we
call them, class? C. Quality- words. T. But since these
words name the quality of objects, what kind of quality-
words should we call them? C, Quality-object- words. T.
What then is a quality-object- word, John ? J. The name of
the quality of an object is called a quality-object-word. T.
A quality-object-word may be called an Adjective. (The
teacher should explain fully.) T. Who can define an adjec-
tive ? Mildred. The name of a quality of an object is called

216 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

an Adjective. T. Please find the adjectives in this sentence
(writing it). Write in a column on your slate the adjectives
in your yesterday's reading lesson, and bring the list to the
grammar recitation to-morrow. (The complete definition of
adjectives should be developed soon after pronouns.)

Tho Concept "Adverb." Teacher. Are the actions which
you observe (moving in various ways) in all respects alike,
Thomas ? T. Sometimes you walked fast and then slowly ;
sometimes you looked up and then down. Teacher. Since the
words fast, slowly, up, and down name the qualities of actions,
what may we call them? Mary. Quality-action- words. T.
To what part of speech are they added, Thomas? T. To
verbs. Teacher. For that reason quality-action-words are
called Adverbs. Who can define an adverb? Mary. The
name of a quality of an action is called an Adverb. T. Please
find the adverbs in these sentences (writing a number of sen-
tences). Write in a column the adverbs of your yesterday's
reading lesson, and bring the list to-morrow. (The develop-
ment of the complete definition of an adverb will require com-
parisons of the qualities of objects and of actions. Pupils
should be required to write illustrative sentences.)

The Concept " Subject." (The pupils have learned what
a sentence is, and the species of sentence, in language work.)
Teacher. Which word in the sentence (Birds sing) which I
have just written, names that about which something is said ?
Helen. The noun bi7^ds. T. What is that about which we
write in a composition called, Claude? C. It is called the
Subject. T. What then may we call the word birds in our
sentence ? C. The subject of the sentence. T. Who can de-
fine the subject of a sentence ? Florence. That about which
something is said in a sentence, is called the Subject. T. Please
name the subjects of the sentences that I shall read from this
book. Write in a column the subjects of the sentences of
your to-day's reading lesson, and bring the list to-morrow.

GRAMMAR 217

(The pupils should be required to construct original sentences,
underscoring the subject. The fact that phrases and clauses
can be subjects, should probably not be taught the first year.)

The Concept "Predicate." Teacher. In this sentence
(the teacher writes Boys run), which word tells something
about the subject, Frank ? F. The verb run. T. Since the
word run tells or asserts something about the subject, what
might we call it ? F. A. telling, or asserting word. T. Yes ;
or a Predicate. Who can define a predicate ? Mary. That
which is said about the subject of a sentence, is called the
Predicate. (Exercises like those under the preceding heads,
should be added. The fact that the verb of interrogative and
imperative sentences is also a predicate should be taught in
the next lesson. Attributes and objects should be introduced
soon afterwards.)

The Concept " Modifier." Teacher. Please read the sen-
tence which I have written, Elmer. E. " Good bdys study
faithfully." T. Which word names the quality of the sub-
ject, Gertrude? G. The adjective good. T. And which
word names the quality of the predicate ? G. The adverb
faithfully. T. Such words are called Modifiers. James, what
then is a Modifier ? J! A word that names the quality of
the subject or predicate, is called a Modifier. T. Since the
word good is an adjective, what kind of a modifier may we
call it? /. An adjective modifier. T. And the word /mYA-
fully f J. An adverbial modifier. T. Please define an ad-
jective modifier. An adverbial modifier. (Exercises similar
to those already suggested should be added. The use of
phrases and clauses, as modifiers, and the modification of
attributes and objects, should be gradually introduced. Only
one new point should be attempted at a time. Concepts al-
ready taught should be frequently reviewed. The methods-
students should be required to write out the suggested recita-
tions.)

218 PEINOIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The Concept "Pronoun." Teacher. John, please read
the sentence which I have written. J. " Mildred holds Mil-
dred's book." T. And this sentence, James? J. "George
holds George's wheel." T. How could we express the same
thoughts without repeating the words Mildred and George f
J. We can say " Mildred holds her book," and " George holds
his wheel." T. Of what parts of speech do the words his and
her take the place, Annie? A. They take the place of nouns.
T. What may we call words used for nouns ? JL. I think we
may call them for-nouns. T. Yes ; or Pronouns, because pro
means for, or instead of . Who can define a pronoun? G. A
word used for a noun is called a Pronoun. T. Please open
your readers and find the pronouns in your yesterday's lesson.
James, you may write these pronouns on the board as fast as
your classmates find them for you.

The Concept " Conjunction." Teacher. Please read the
sentence which I have written, Mary. M. " He sells books
and pictures." T. What word connects two words in the sen-
tence? M. The word and connects the words hoohs and
pictures. T. What may we call words that connect or con-
join others? 31. We might call them conjoining words. T.
Yes ; conjoining words, or Conjunctions. Who can define a
conjunction ? (Such exercises as have been suggested should
follow. The other uses of conjunctions should be introduced
one at a time.)

The Concept " Preposition." (The meaning of the word
" relation" can be best taught by using it.) Teacher. Where
is the book, Mary ? M. On the table. T. And now ? M.
It is under the table. T. And where is it now ? M. In my
lap. T. Which words then did you use to express the rela-
tion of the book and table, or your lap ? M. The words on,
under, and in. T. What may we call words which show the
relation of things ? Mabel. Relation- words. T. Yes ; or
Prepositions. (The pupils should be led to see why they are

GRAMMAR 219

SO called, but not at first.) T. James, what is a preposition ?
J. A word which shows the relation of things is called a
Preposition. (The usual exercises should follow.)

The Concept " Case." (This property can be most con-
veniently taught at first by means of pronouns, where the /orm
of the word is a help.) Teacher. Please read the sentences
which I have written, Charles. C. " James struck me." " I
struck James." " James hit my hand." T. Do the words I
and me, and my, refer to different persons ? C. They all refer
to the same person. T. If these words all refer to the same
person, why are they not all spelled the same way ? Emily.
They are not used the same way : the word I is the subject of
a sentence ; the word me is an object ; and the word my denotes
ownership. T. These changes of form to suit the use of words
as subject, object, and owner, are termed Case. Since the
word me names the object of the sentence, in what case may we
say that it is, Ralph ? R. In the ohject-case. T. Yes ; or the
Objective case. What words then are said to be in the objec-
tive case, Mildred ? Jf. A word used as the object of a sen-
tence, is said to be in the objective case. T. Since the word
my denotes ownership or possession, in what case is it ? M.
In the Possessive case. T. What words therefore are in the
possessive case? M. A word that denotes possession, is said
to be in the possessive case. T. A word used as the subject
of a sentence, is said to be in the Nominative case. James,
please name the three possible cases that we have now found.
Describe each case. (Sentences in which nouns are used in-
stead of pronouns, should next be studied. The objective case
after prepositions, can also be most conveniently taught with
pronouns. The possessive form of nouns should be carefully
studied. Special lessons on the nominative case by address
may be attempted the second year. The nominative absolute
should probably not be attempted before the intermediate
course. The other properties of nouns and pronouns should

220 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

be taught in the same way as Case. The methods-students
should be required to write out recitations on person, gender,
and number.)

The Concept Tense. Teacher. Ruth, please read the
sentences which I have just written. R. " Mary laughs."
" Mary laughed." " Mary will laugh." T. To what times do
the verbs in these sentences refer, Henry ? H. The first verb
refers to present time ; the second, to past time ; and the third,
to future time. T. The change of form in words to denote
different times, is called Tense. Since the word laughs denotes
present time, in what tense may we say that it is, Emma ? E.
In the present tense. T. The word laughed f E. In the past
tense. T. And the words will laugh f E. In \\ie future tense.
T. Mary, what is meant by tense? Present tense? Past
tense? Future tense? (The other tenses, and all the other
properties of the verb, should be taught in the way suggested.
The methods-students should be required to write out the
necessary recitations.)

The Concept " Comparison." Teacher. Newton, please
read the sentences on the board. N. "Maude's picture is
grand." "Miriam's picture is grander than Maude's."
" Grace's picture is the grandest of all." T. Please under-
score the words which tell the quality of the pictures, James.
(James underscores the right words.) T. Why are these
words not all alike in form ? J. To denote unlikeness in the
quality of the pictures. Teacher. Change in the endings in
adjectives and adverbs to express degree in quality, is termed
Comparison. The first degree is termed Positive ; the second,
ComiMrative ; and the third, or highest, Superlative. (These
terms, though introduced arbitrarily at first, should be ex-
plained as soon as possible. The various spellings of regular
and irregular adjectives and adverbs, should be illustrated,
and finally classified. The methods-students should be re-
quired to write out the necessary recitations.) .

GRAMMAR 221

The Concepts "Regular" and "Irregular" Verb.
Teacher. Please read the sentences on the board, Grace.
G. " The boy honored his father." " She sang a beautiful
hymn." T. What is the tense of both verbs ? G. The past
tense. T. How is the past tense, or preterit, formed in the
first sentence, Robert ? R. By adding ed to the present tense
form ? T. That is the usual, or regular, way of forming the
preterit of verbs. What therefore may we call verbs whose
preterit is thus formed ? R. Regular vevhs. T. Ruth, what
is a regular verb ? An irregular verb ? (Care should be
taken not to classify verbs whose preterit is formed by adding
d, as ceased, with irregular verbs.) Please think of five reg-
ular verbs, Helen. Mary, find five irregular verbs in this
reader. (The usual exercises should, of course, not be omitted.
All the classes of the parts of speech should be taught in the
same way. The methods-students should be required to write
out the necessary recitations.)

The " Element" Concepts. Teacher. Please read the sen-
tence on the board, Harry. H. " Alas ! Poor David wept
very bitterly and very penitently." T. Which are the neces-
sary parts in this sentence ? H. The subject and the predi-
cate. T. Since the subject and predicate are the necessary
parts, or elements, of a sentence, what may we call them,
Walter ? W. The necessary elements. T. Yes ; the neces-
sary, or Principal Elements. T. Since the modifiers of the
subject and predicate, including the attribute and object, are
not essential elements of the sentence, what may we call such
modifiers, Thomas ? Thomas. Perhaps it would do to call
them modifier elements. T. That name would do ; they are
commonly called Subordinate Elements. Please point out the
principal and the subordinate elements of the sentence which
you read. Why are they so called ? What parts of speech
are the words poor, bitterly, and penitently, James ? J. Poor
is an adjective ; the other words are adverbs. T. Then what

222 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

may we call these elements ? J. Adjective elements and ad-
verbial elements. (The term Adjunct may be introduced at
this point.) T. Since it is the business of conjunctions to
connect, what kind of an element may we call the word and,
Grace ? G. A Connective Element. T. Since Alas is not at
all connected with the sentence so far as its form goes, what
may we call it, May ? M. We might call it the Independent
Element. (Other sentences illustrating the same points should
be studied until the new terms are familiar. By and by
phrases and clauses should be introduced as subordinate ele-
ments ; relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs should be
made connectives ; and other words besides interjections should
be used as independent elements. The methods-students should
be required to write out the necessary recitations.)

The " Rules" of Grammar. The rules of grammar should
be introduced the second year, but not until the anatomy
(see the preceding study) of the sentence is pretty familiar.
One illustration must suffice. Teacher. Please read the sen-
tence on the board. Alma. A. " The boy whom the gypsies
had stolen, has been recovered." T. What part of speech is
the word whom f A. k. relative pronoun. (It is presumed
that this concept was developed under classes of the parts of
speech.) T. What is the person of the word whom, Elsie?
E. It is of the third person (this concept was developed
under properties of nouns and pronouns), because its ante-
cedent is of that person. T. What other properties of whom
do we know by its antecedent, Calvin ? G. The number and
gender. T. Put all these truths into one sentence, George.
G. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person,
number, and gender. T. What you have just said is always
true of relative pronouns. Such general truths are termed
Rides. Hereafter when you parse a relative pronoun, you
will be expected to remember the rule which you found just
now. (The methods-student should be required to write

GKAMMAE 223

out the necessary recitations for the development of several
rules.)

A Word to Methods-Students. Methods-students should
not expect too great success in these inductive-deductive les-
sons at first, nor should they hope to obtain ideal answers
from their pupils. If, however, the main course be kept in
mind, deviations can be corrected.

III. INTERMEDIATE GRAMMAR.

The distinctive features of intermediate, as well as of ele-
mentary grammar, present themselves under the following
heads : (1) The Objects of the Course ; (2) Its Subjects ; and
(3) The Method of Instruction.

The Objects of Intermediate Grammar. The object of
intermediate grammar (see The Number of Courses) is greater
perfection in its inductions and deductions.

The Inductions of Intermediate Grammar. The concepts
developed in elementary grammar, require enlargement. It is
seldom possible to develop some of the most essential concepts
of syntax before the high school epoch. The development of
complete definitions in so abstract a study as grammar, re-
quires considerable maturity. The same is true of rules as
expressions of remote relations.

The Deductions of Intermediate Gi^ammar. The deductive
comparisons required in parsing and analyzing comjjlex and
compound sentences, presupposing complete development of
concepts and rules, are for that reason impossible for most
pupils before the high school epoch. The successful deduc-
tive construction of all species of sentences (the practical ob-
ject of grammar), presupposes correct standards of comparison
and critical habit, and must therefore be regarded as tasks of
maturer minds.

The Subjects of Intermediate Grammar. The great
subjects of intermediate, or high school grammar, in accord-

224 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

ance with its objects, are : (1) Definitions ; (2) Rules ; (8) In-
flections ; (4) Parsing ; (5) Analysis ; and (6) Exercises in Syn-
tax. Three or four years should be devoted to this course,
the number of recitations to be determined by practical con-
siderations.

Definitions in Intermediate Grammar. (1) The incom-
plete definitions developed in elementary grammar should
now be completed, care being taken that all definitions are
correct descriptions of the pupil's conceptions. (2) New defi-
nitions, descriptions of the new concepts developed in the in-
termediate course, must, of course, be added. (3) In order to
make the concepts contained in definitions permanent posses-
sions, and thus ready standards for the deductive comparisons
necessary in parsing, analyzing, and syntax, intermediate
pupils should be required to commit definitions. For practical
reasons, it is probably best to require intermediate pupils
to commit the text-book definitions, or those of the teacher,
but always in connection with the necessary inductive ap-
proaches.

Rules in Intermediate Grammar, (1) As a practical
guide in constructing sentences, the " rules" of grammar, i.e.,
the statements of its general truths, must, of course, be com-
mitted, at least virtually if not verbatim, but never until the
necessary inductive approaches have been made. For reasons
of economy, the statements of the text-book in use are prob-
ably the most convenient. (2) "Notes" and "exceptions,"
though of great practical importance, should not be committed
verbatim, since their contents can be readily associated with
the " rules" to which they belong. Familiarity with these
notes and exceptions is, however, a practical necessity.

Inflections in Intermediate Grammar. (1) In elemen-
tary grammar, inflections, i.e., declensions and conjugations,
must necessarily be fragmentary ; but, in intermediate gram-
mar, these fragments should be gradually collected into wholes,

GRAMMAR 225

mastered in thought, and memorized. (2) Irregular declen-
sions and conjugations require special attention. The princi-
pal parts of irregular verbs, together with other irregularities
of the parts of speech, should be thoroughly memorized and
frequently used in syntax.

Parsing in Intermediate Grammar. The deductive ex-
planation of " words in sentences," like inflection, must neces-
sarily be fragmentary in elementary grammar. In other
words, elementary pupils should be expected to point out the
parts of speech in question, naming such properties as may
have been studied, and answering such questions as the teacher
may put. But, in intermediate grammar, parsing should be-
come a definite system of explanations.

Forms of Parsing. Some definite plan, or scheme, of
parsing, commonly the scheme of the book in use, should be
adhered to in intermediate classes. In parsing a noun, for
example, the scheme might consist of the following order: (1)
Class ; (2) Gender ; (3) Person ; (4) Number ; (5) Case ; and
(6) Rule. Whatever scheme may be adopted, it should be as
simple and logical as possible. Every part of a scheme
should be thoroughly understood, lest parsing become a
meaningless repetition of words. To be practically service-
able, such forms must be memorized. Forms of parsing are
necessary for several reasons : (1) They enable pupils to parse
a word completely without hesitation, thus saving time ; (2)
They enable the listening pupils and the teacher to detect
and remember errors more effectively, and thus serve the in-
terests of the recitation ; and (3) They promote habits of order-
liness in written recitations, and economize time in criticising
such recitations.

Enthymeme Statements in Parsing. For some time, at least,
intermediate as well as elementary pupils should be required
to add reasons to their statements in parsing words. In the
sentence, " Man is mortal," the word is, for example, should

16

226 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

be parsed as follows : Js is a neuter verb, because it expresses
being ; etc. To save time and to preserve thoughtfulness,
those reasons with which the pupil is known to be familiar,
should not be required. Rules should generally be fully
stated. The objects of enthymeme statements in parsing are
as follows : (1) The requirements tend to make the concepts
presupposed in these deductive judgments, permanent posses-
sions ; (2) It is an admirable discipline in syllogistic thought,
promoting right habit and preparing for logic.

Simple Statements in Parsing. As soon as it seems safe for
pupils to do so, they should be required to parse words com-
pletely without adding reasons to classifications. In the sen-
tence, " Great Cassar fell," the word great, for example, should
be parsed as follows : The word great is a descriptive adjective
of the positive degree ; it modifies the word Csesar, according
to the rule, " Adjectives relate to nouns and pronouns." To
make sure that pupils parsing this way do not let acquired
concepts slip, and that they think as well as speak in parsing,
the teacher must ask for reasons wherever he suspects defec-
tions. The reasons for parsing in this way are as follows :
(1) It saves time without injury to the pupil's mind ; (2) It is
an admirable discipline in rapid thinking, promoting the habit
of decision in connection with that of accuracy ; and (3) It
is more interesting to parse in this way when much of it has
to be done.

Abbreviations in Parsing. In written parsing some system
of abbreviations is convenient. The following scheme is pro-
posed by Dr. E. O. Lyte in his "Grammar and Composi-
tion." Write the sentence whose words are to be parsed in
one line if possible. Draw a line under the words to be
parsed, and write the initial letters of the parsing in a vertical
column under the respective words. Do not use punctuation
marks. When necessary, use a dotted line to separate the
written parsing of two words.

GRAMMAR 227

Illustration :

The enemy advancing, he ordered the signal to be given.

r i n V

r t f V

it — n V

par
pr

a

ind

P

inf

enemy
(rule)

pa
he
3

pr

signal
(rule)

(rule)

For fuller explanation the student is respectfully referred to
Dr. Lyte's Grammar and Composition.

The objects of such abbreviations are as follows : (1) The
plan is serviceable in preparing lessons for the teacher's in-
spection ; (2) It is useful in combination with oral parsing, as
a variation from the full forms, and as a means of parsing
more sentences in a given time. (3) The plan must, how-
ever, be carefully guarded, lest pupils make it a system of
deceptions.

Eclectic Parsing. As a rule, intermediate pupils should be
required to parse the words of a sentence in order. By and
by, however, the process of parsing should become eclectic.
There are two species of eclective parsing : (1) Those words
or parts of speech with which the pupils are known to be
familiar, may be ignored ; and (2) The teacher may ask such
questions about certain words in the sentence as seem to him
to test the pupil's knowledge. Both forms are convenient with
advanced pupils : (1) The plan saves time and tends to pre-
serve interest in grammar ; (2) It is a better mode of discipline,
since it requires constant attention and thoughtful judgment.

The Proportion of Oral and Wntten Parsing. Oral parsing
takes less time, but written parsing is a better discipline in
language. Written parsing saves time as a supplement in
recitations, and is a convenient mode of exhibiting the prepara-

228 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

tion of lessons. Oral parsing, though not as eifective as a dis-
cipline in language, is indispensable as a language exercise.
Probably younger pupils should do more oral, and older pupils
more written parsing.

Errors in Parsing. There are two species of errors in
parsing : (1) The pupil may say the wrong thing, as when he
calls a verb a noun though he knows better. This is termed
an error of form. (2) The pupil may have the wrong idea, as
when he regards a regular verb irregular. This is termed an
error of judgment. Errors of form are due either to thought-
lessness or slips of the tongue, and may be remedied by re-
moving the causes. Errors of judgment are due either to im-
perfect inductions or slips of memory, and must be remedied
by perfect induction or review.

The Objects of Parsing. The objects of parsing are as fol-
lows : (1) To exercise pupils in acquired knowledge, thus
making it a permanent possession ; (2) To exercise pupils in
deductive judgments, thus developing the important power
of deductive thought ; and (3) To equip pupils with standard
conceptions for the criticism and construction of sentences.

Analysis in Intermediate Grammar. In elementary
grammar, the pupil is confined almost altogether to simple
sentences and informal analysis. The intermediate course is
concerned more especially with complex and compound sen-
tences, and the process of analysis becomes a complete system
of deductive explanation.

Forms of Analysis. There are two possible forms, or plans,
of analyzing a sentence, the synthetic and the analytic : (1) In
synthetic analysis the simple subject and predicate are named,
and their adjuncts added. Take this sentence for example :
The man who committed that dreadful crime, was arrested by
the officers. This is a complex declarative sentence, consist-
ing of one principal and one dependent clause. The simple
subject of the principal clause is man, modified by the adjec-

GRAMMAR 229

tive adjuncts the and the relative clause who committed that
dreadful cfime. The simple subject of this dependent clause,
is who, the predicate of the clause is committed, and the object
crime, modified by the adjective adjuncts that and dreadful.
The whole, or logical subject is, therefore, The man who com-
mitted that dreadful crime. The simple predicate of the prin-
cipal clause is was arrested, modified by the adverbial adjunct
phrase by the ojicer's, of which phrase officers is the object,
modified by the adjective adjunct the, and governed by the
preposition by. The whole predicate of the principal clause is
was arrested by the officers. (2) In analytic analysis the whole
subject and predicate of the principal clause, are named first.
The whole subject is then analyzed into its parts, as in syn-
thetic analysis, the dependent clause included. The same
thing is done with the principal predicate. (3) The synthetic
form of analysis is a little simpler and allows more time for
reflection, and is, therefore, more appropriate for younger
pupils, while the analytic form is more logical and should,
therefore, be used by older pupils.

Enthymeme Statements in Analysis. Until there can be no
doubt that pupils use the technical language of analysis intel-
ligently, they should be required to add reasons to statements,
as in parsing. This requirement seems self-evident, but it has
been so commonly violated, and with such bad effects on the
mental life of pupils, that it must be urged upon teachers as
the indispensable thing.

Simple Statements in Analysis. When there can be no doubt
that the technical language of grammatical analysis is under-
stood by the pupils, they should not be required to use enthy-
meme statements. For illustrations, see the analysis of the
sentence under " Forms of Analysis." The reasons for such
simple statements in the analysis of a sentence are the same as
in such parsing. (See the paragraph on " Simple Statements
in Parsing.")

230 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OP TEACHING

Abbreviations in Analysis. In analyzing a sentence, as in
parsing, and for the same reasons, systems of abbreviation are
convenient. Various systems of such analysis are proposed
in the text-books of Brown, Lyte, Hadley, and others. To
these books on grammar the methods-student is respectfully
referred. The following illustration is taken from Dr. Lyte's
" Grammar and Composition." It is the analysis of the sen-
tence " An idler is a watch that wants both hands."

C'D

Eclectic Analysis. With advanced pupils time can be saved
and thought promoted by eclectic analysis. In this mode of
analysis the teacher simply inquires into the difficulties of a
lesson, and, if the answers to his questions are satisfactory, he
assumes that his pupils understand the whole lesson. Eclec-
tic analysis is, therefore, a risk with immature pupils, since it
assumes too much.

Grammatical Description. Grammatical description is an
eclectic union of parsing and analysis. Its design is two-fold :
(1) It saves time by ignoring unimportant details; and (2) It
is an admirable exercise in thinking. It is, however, not ap-
propriate for younger pupils, since it presupposes training in
both parsing and analysis. The subjoined treatment of the
sentence, The little bird that sang so sweetly in my garden yes-
terday, was tvounded this morning by a hunter, is an illustration
of the synthetic method of grammatical description. The
analytic method is readily derived.

GRAMMAR 231

The proposed sentence is a complex declarative sentence.
The is an article ; it is used to modify bird. Little is an ad-
jective ; it also is used to modify bird. Bird is a noun ; it is
used as the subject of was wounded. That is a relative pro-
noun, and its antecedent is bird ; it is used as the subject
of sang ; it introduces the clause that sang so sweetly in my
garden yesterday, and joins it to bird. Sang is a verb ;
its subject is that. So is an adverb ; it is used to modify
sweetly. Sweetly is an adjective ; it modifies sang. In is a
preposition ; it is used to introduce the phrase in my garden,
and joins it to sang. My is a personal pronoun ; it is used to
modify garden. Garden is a noun ; it is used as the object
of in. That sang so sweetly in my garden yesterday is a clause
used as an adjective ; it modifies bird. The little bird that sang
so sweetly in my garden yesterday is the entire subject of the
sentence. Was wounded is a \'erb ; its simple subject is bird.
This is a demonstrative adjective ; it is used to modify mor-n-
ing. Morning is a noun ; it is used as an adverb of time, and
modifies was luounded. By is a preposition ; it is used to in-
troduce the phrase by a hunter, and joins it to was wounded.
A is an article, and modifies hunter. By a hunter is a phrase
used as an adverb ; it modifies icas wounded. Was wounded
this morning by a hunter is the entire predicate of the sentence.

Diagr^ams in Grammar. A grammatical diagram is a pic-
ture by which it is proposed to represent to the eye the rela-
tions of words in sentences. Professor Clark's system is a
very clever invention, and has been favorably received. The
system used in Reed and Kellog's grammar not only " looks
well on the board," but is an effective instrument in the
teacher's hands. The objections to grammatical diagrams are
as follows : (1) It is not true that lines and directions can
picture the anatomy of thoughts; (2) The diagram that will
represent the anatomy of a lengthy complex or compound
sentence, is probably more difficult to understand than the

232 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

analysis without diagrams. The legitimate uses of diagrams
are as follows : (1) They represent the anatomy of a sentenoe,
and are thus effective helps in the analysis of the thought of
the sentence ; (2) They are admirable modes of written recita-
tion, saving much time and adding interest to the study of
grammar ; and (3) They are useful modes of preparing lessons
for the teacher's inspection.

It is believed, however, that the simplest possible system
of diagrams is the only justifiable one, and that even then
there is danger of making the diagram too prominent at the
expense of the pupil's development in logical independence.

Errors in Analysis. Two species of error are possible in
analyzing a sentence : (1) The pupil may err in language, as
when he miscalls elements of the sentence or misrepresents re-
lations by diagrams and abbreviations. These errors of form
are caused either by thoughtlessness, slips of the tongue, slips
of memory, or defective instruction. The removal of these
causes is the proper remedy. (2) The pupil may err in
thought, as when he mistakes the elements of a sentence or
their relations. These errors of judgment, as they are called,
are commonly caused either by inattention, lack of prepara-
tion, imperfect inductions, or slips of memory. The causes
should be removed.

The Proportion of Oral and Written Analysis. Oral analy-
sis is probably more interesting than written analysis, and
takes less time. It is also better than written analysis as an
exercise in rapid thinking. Written analysis is the proper
supplement in recitation, and offers a better opportunity to do
correct and complete work. It is also an indispensable re-
quirement in the preparation of lessons for the teacher's inspec-
tion. Probably, therefore, oral analysis should preponderate
over written analysis in younger classes, and mce versa in
older classes.

The Relation of Analysis to Parsing. (1) Parsing is a prepa-

GRAMMAR 233

ration for analysis in two ways : (a) It furnishes many necessary
technical terms ; and {b) It introduces the pupil to the word-
individuals which are the elements of sentences. (2) Analysis
reinforces parsing in two ways : (a) It presupposes and em-
ploys the ideas and language acquired in parsing ; and (6) It
reveals properties of the parts of speech which parsing alone
could not discover, as in the case of relative pronouns, preposi-
tions, etc. (See " Grammatical Description.")

The Objects of Analysis. The objects of analysis are as
follows : (1) It is an admirable exercise in deductive thinking,
and tends to develop critical power ; (2) It is a fine trainmg
in the expression of ideas and thoughts ; and (3) It equips for
the criticism and construction of sentences.

Exercises in Syntax. The study of each rule of relation,
agreement, government, and arrangement, should be supple-
mented (1) by criticism of sentences in whose structure the
rule in question or some rule already studied, is violated ; and

(2) by original construction of sentences according to some rule
or rules.

False Syntax. (1) A collection of suitable sentences for
exercise in the correction of false syntax, is generally found
in text-books on grammar. The teacher may supplement
this collection, if he sees fit to do so. The false syntax so
commonly found in school-rooms and on school-grounds,
should be noted down and criticised. (2) It is sometimes
urged that such attention to false syntax tends to fix the false
forms as habits of the pupil. This is only too true where
pupils are allowed to read, write, and hear these sentences
without connection. The correct must, of course, be made to
prevail over the incorrect. This is the law of right habit.

(3) There are various forms of correcting false syntax, some
one of which should be adhered to, though not too mechani-
cally, in class work. The subjoined oral and written correc-
tion of the sentence, " Was it him whom you saw ?" illustrates

234 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

a common and convenient method of correcting false syntax.
(1) The sentence is incorrect. The objective pronoun him is
used as an attribute complement. In its place the nomina-
tive pronoun he should be used, according to the rule that a
noun or pronoun used as an attribute complement must be in
the same case as the subject to which it refers. (2) The sen-
tence should therefore be, Was it he whom you saw ?

The methods-students should be required to write out the
synopsis of these illustrations and apply the plan to other
cases of false syntax. Any other systematic plan will serve
the same purpose. (See text-books on grammar.)

Original Sentences. Intermediate students should be re-
quired to construct sentences in conformity with studied rules.
Early in the course these exercises should be developed into
brief compositions on various topics. It is of the greatest
importance to require students writing such compositions to
justify the construction of every sentence, i.e., to show that it
conforms with law.

The Importance of Exercises in Syntax. It should ever be
kept in miud that the practical objects of the study of gram-
mar are the following : (1) To develop adequate power, right
habits, and correct tastes, in the construction of sentences, and
to construct sentences deductively ; and (2) To prepare the
student to understand and appreciate the construction of sen-
tences in literature.

The Method of Instruction in Intermediate Grammar.
The distinctive features of intermediate methods come to view
under the following heads : (1) Text-Books of Intermediate
Grammar ; (2) The Preparation of Lessons ; and (3) The Reci-
tation.

Text-Books of Intermediate Grammar. (1) The first text-
book of intermediate grammar should be planned for obser-
vation, induction, and deduction, in such proportion as will best
serve the purposes in hand. (See " The Objects of Intermediate

GRAMMAR 235

Grammar.") Dr. Lyte's Grammar and Composition, and sev-
eral other late grammars, are illustrations of this ideal method.
The fact that the great majority of text-books have been too
deductive in plan, accoimts at least partially for the failures re-
corded in the history of grammar. (2) After about two years'
study of a book like Dr. Lyte's, a text like Brown's " Insti-
tutes of English Grammar," whose plan is deductive, should
be taken up for a year or two. (3) The grammar of several
English classics, such as Gray's " Elegy" and Pope's " Essay
on Man," together with Latin or German grammar, should be
added to Brown in high schools and Normal schools, with the
special purpose of cultivating analytic power and critical taste.

Preparation of Lessons in Intermediate Gi'ammar. The
lesson having been definitely assigned, intermediate pupils in
grammar should be required to observe, to parse and analyze,
and to correct and construct sentences, etc., according to the plan
of the lesson. Some of this work should be prepared in writing
and submitted for inspection. Parsing and analyzing by ab-
breviation, as indicated, and diagrams, should constitute parts
of the student's preparation. The pupil should be expected to
be master of the definitions and rules that may be in question.

The Recitation in Intermediate Grammar. The objects of
the recitation (see the Fifth General Principle of Education)
are culture and instruction.

For the culture of all the mental functions the following
tasks may be assigned : (1) To state, explain, and illustrate
definitions or rules ; (2) To decline, conjugate, or compare
words ; (3) To parse certain words of a sentence ; (4) To ana-
lyze a sentence ; (5) To correct or construct sentences accord-
ing to rule. This work should, of course, be partly oral and
partly written, the proportion depending on the nature of the
tasks and the purposes of the teacher.

(1) While part of the grammar class is working at the
board, the teacher must supervise the oral work, adding cor-

236 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

rections and information wherever the right opportunity
presents itself. (2) When the board-workers read what they
have written, there will be splendid opportunities to make
corrections and to add information. The task of correcting
board- work should be divided . between the class and the
teacher. Much of the succ-ess to which the teacher hopes to
attain will depend on the skill with which he adds informa-
tion in class.

IV. HIGHER GRAMMAR.

Our limits forbid all but a brief outline of the work to be
done in higher grammar. The following outline is subjoined
as a stimulus to teachers and special students.

The Objects of Higher Grammar. The ends in view in
higher grammar are as follows : (1) The attainment of such
scholarship as the merits of the branch justify ; (2) The prep-
aration of students for the comprehension and enjoyment of
literature so far as such comprehension and enjoyment depend
on training in grammar ; and (3) The development of such
practical proficiency in grammar as may serve the practical
interests of the various occupations and professions.

The Subjects of Higher Grammar. The course of higher
grammar belongs to the latter part of the high school epoch,
to Normal schools, and to preparatory schools of high grade.

Higher Grammar of High Schools. To the work already
mapped out for high schools, the following tasks may be
added where the circumstances allow it : (1) A special course
in the anomalies of English grammar ; (2) A course in the
correlation of grammar with rhetoric, logic, etc, ; (3) A course
in the grammar of the most difficult English master-pieces ;
and (4) A course of composition in which the special object is
the deductive construction of sentences.

Higher Grammar in Normal Schools. The Normal school
should offer a course of grammar equivalent to that mapped

GRAMMAR 237

out for high schools. The special stand-point of Normal
schools requires such a course for two reasons : (1) As a prep-
aration for the pedagogics of grammar ; and (2) As an equip-
ment in teaching grammar. There should be constant refer-
ence to such higher text-books on grammar as Whitney's, etc.
The history and philosophy of grammar should, of course, be
connected with the pedagogics of grammar. (See " The Nature
of Grammar.") A course of comparative grammar is also
desirable for teachers and specialists.

Higher Grammar of Preparatory Schools. The purposes of
preparatory schools requires a course in grammar equivalent
to that mapped out for high schools. (1) Such a course serves
as a disciplinary means in preparing for college ; and (2) It is
indispensable as a preparation for the study of philology and
foreign grammar.

The Method of Instruction in Higher Grammar. The
method employed in intermediate grammar is virtually the
right method for higher grammar. The higher phases of the
subject, the special purposes in view, and the individuality of
the teacher, must determine the necessary adjustments. The
pedagogics of grammar is a problem of psychology and econ-
omy, and must obviously be studied from those stand-points.

V. THE IMPORTANCE OF GRAMMAR.

To appreciate the importance of grammar, one must under-
stand its efficiency as a means of culture and instruction. The
following topics deserve special consideration : (1) The Culture
Value of Grammar ; (2) The Instruction Value of Grammar ;
(3) The Practical Value of Grammar ; and (4) The Training
of Teachers of Grammar.

The Culture Value of Grammar. The nature of the
subject (see beginning of this chapter) and the necessary
method of instruction make grammar the possible means of
cultivating all the functions of the intellect, but especially the

238 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

understanding. (The methods- student should be required to
prove this statement.) As the virtual study of the structure
of thought, together with concomitant emotion and volition, it
is an admirable exercise of self-consciousness. But, studied
rightly, grammar is more than a discipline of the intellect;
the joy of inductive discoveries and deductive uses, rouses the
whole " heart" into responses ; and the caution, concentration,
and purpose, so essential in the right study of grammar, make
it a most excellent discipline of the will. " The Committee of
Fifteen" says : " Grammar demonstrates its title to the first
place by its use as a discipline in subtle analysis, in logical
division and classification, in the art of questioning, and in the
mental accomplishment of making exact definitions. Nor is
this an empty formal discipline, for its subject matter, lan-
guage, is a product of the reason of a people not as individuals
but as a social whole, and the vocabulary holds in its store of
words the generalized experience of that people, including
sensuous observation and reflection, feeling and emotion, in-
stinct and volition." One-sided training in grammar, how-
ever, may have serious results. On this point the same com-
mittee says : " Grammar, rich as it is in its contents, is only a
formal discipline as respects the scientific, historic, or literary
contents of language, and is indifferent to them. A training
for four or five years in parsing and grammatical analysis
practised on literary works of art (Milton, Shakespeare, Ten-
nyson, Scott) is a training of the pupil into habits of iudiiFer-
ence toward and neglect of the genius displayed in the literary
work of art, and into habits of impertinent and trifling at-
tention to elements employed as material or texture, and a cor-
responding neglect of the structural form which alone is the
work of the artist."

The Instruction Value of Grammar. The study of the
structure of sentences is virtually the study of the structure of
thought, admittedly the most important study of man. The

GRAMMAR 2.^9

fact that thought cannot be isolated from emotion and voli-
tion, makes the study of grammar the great anteroom of psy-
chology proper. On this point '^ The Committee of Fifteen"
says : " It shows the structure of language, and the logical
forms of subject, predicate, and modifier, thus revealing the
essential nature of thought itself, the most important of all
objects, because it is self-object."

The Practical Value of Grapimar. The practical advan-
tages of grammar are as follows : (1) It offers a systematic
guidance in the construction of sentences, and is, therefore, of
inestimable value to spoken and to written discourse; (2) It
is the indispensable preparation for the study of rhetoric, logic,
foreign languages, and philology ; (3) It is impossible to com-
prehend and appreciate fully the structural agency of litera-
ture, without a thorough training in grammar ; and (4) The
proper study of grammar develops habits of mind which are
of the greatest importance as practical equipments.

The Training of Teachers of Grammar. The responsi-
bility of teachers of grammar must, of course, be measured by
the importance of the study. If, therefore, grammar is as im-
portant to pupils as just explained, it is evident that teachers
of grammar need the best possible training in grammar. This
training consists of two items : (1) Training in grammar itself.
This training, as elsewhere stated, is needed in the art as well
as in the science of teaching grammar. Without such profi-
ciency, grammar will be distasteful to students and a failure as
an educational instrument. (2) Training in the principles and
methods of teaching grammar is necessary. Since this topic
was the subject of the present chapter, it is hoped that further
discussion may not be necessary.

Z40 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
CHAPTER VIII.

ARITHMETIC.

The purpose in hand requires that in this chapter our atten-
tion be directed to (1) The Nature of Arithmetic ; and (2) In-
struction in Arithmetic.

A. THE NATURE OF ARITHMETIC.

In order to form a correct idea of the nature of arithmetic,
it is necessary to consider the following topics : (1) The " Sub-
ject" of Arithmetic ; (2) The Psychology of Arithmetic ; (3)
The Definition of Arithmetic ; and (4) The History of Arith-
metic.

I. THE "SUBJECT" OF ARITHMETIC.

It is with " numbers" (how many), rather than with the
nature and relations of things, that arithmetic has to do. But,
as in drawing, it is rather the acts than the lines in question in
those acts that constitute the " subject" of study (though both
together are the subject), so in arithmetic it is rather the oper-
ations than the numbers in question in those operations that
constitute the subject of arithmetic (though both together are
the subject). A complete description of the "subject" of
arithmetic, therefore, requires the consideration of the follow-
ing topics : (1) The Nature of Numbers ; and (2) The Number-
Operations.

The Nature of Numbers, Parts of any kind which to-
gether constitute a whole for the mind, thus constitute what is
termed a Unit. Any unit in the conception of which the mind
is unconscious of arbitrary division is termed an Integral
Unit. The division of the integral unit gives rise to the Frac-
tional Unit, as one-third. A unit or collection of units is

AEITHMETIC 241

termed a Number, as one, one-half, two. With reference to
units, there are three species of numbers : (1) The integral
unit or a collection of integral units is termed an Integral
Number, as one, nine. (2) The fractional unit or a collection
of fractional units is termed a Fractional Number, or Frac-
tion, as one-half, one-tenth. There are three familiar species
of Fractious, (a) Common Fractions, (6) Decimal Fractions,
and (c) Duodecimal Fractions. Simple reference to these spe-
cies of fractions must suffice at this point. (3) When the
integral unit is a conventional unit of measure, as one-pound,
the corresponding numbers, as one pound, one half pound,
three pounds, are termed Denominate Numbers.

An Important Distinction. It is important to distinguish
the concepts denoted by the term " number" and " numbers."
The concept " number" is general ; the concept " numbers" is
particular in its application. Numbers (a number, the num-
bers) are either definitely or indefinitely particular. It is only
with number in the definite sense of "just how many" that we
have to do in arithmetic.

The Number-Operations. The quantitative character of
numbers gives rise to three number-operations, (1) Synthesis,
(2) Analysis, and (3) Comparison.

The Synthesis of Numbers. The possible modes of synthesis
of numbers, as determined by the nature of number, are as
follows : (1 ) To fix the mind on each object of a collection, to
ascertain the number of objects ; (2) To fix the mind on given
numbers in succession, to ascertain the sum ; and (3) To take
a number a number of times, to ascertain the product. These
modes of synthesis are termed respectively (1) Counting, (2)
Addition, and (3) Multiplication. Counting is the most ele-
mentary process of addition, and multiplication is addition by
uniform repetition. There are two distinct varieties of mul-
tiplication : (1) A number of numbers may be used as factors,
and the product ascertained. This process is termed Compo-

16

242 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

sition. (2) A number may be used a number of times as a
multiplier^ and the product ascertained. This j)rocess is termed
Involution.

The Analysis of Numbers. The possible modes of analysis
of numbers, as determined by the nature of number, are as
follows : (1) To take a number from a number, to ascertain the
difference ; and (2) To take the same number away as often as
possible, to ascertain the number of times one number contains
another. These modes of analysis are termed respectively (1)
Subtraction, and (2) Division. Division is subtraction by uni-
form diminution, and there are two distinct varieties : {a) A
composite number may be subjected to successive divisions, the
numbers of which it is composed being thus ascertained. This
process is termed Factoring. (6) A number may be resolved
into the equal factors of which it is the product. This process
is termed Evolution.

The Comparison of Numbers. The possible modes of com-
paring numbers, as determined by the relation of numbers, are
as follows : (1) The comparison of two equivalent numerical
quantities ; (2) The comparison of two unequal numbers ; and
(3) The comparison of two equal relations of numbers. The
equations which express these three modes of comparison are
termed respectively (1) Simple Equation, (2) Eatio, and (3)
Proportion. The ends in view are respectively, (1) To trans-
form any numerical quantity into a more desirable form, as
2x3 = 6; (2) To measure the relation of unequal numerical
quantities, as 12:15 = 1-; and (3) To complete one ratio by
means of another, as 6 : 6 =: 1 : 4. These equations, as the
thoughtful reader will see, are really the thought-processes in
the various modes of synthesis and analysis just described in
the text. Indeed, all the judgments of arithmetical processes
fall into the form of equations.

The Language of the Number- Operations. For various
reasons it is as important to express number-concepts and

ARITHMETIC 243

number-operations truthfully, as it is to describe objects and
events. In order to carry on, as well as to express and record
the number- operations, a language sui generis is requisite.
The complexity of many number-concepts and number-opera-
tions requires a language in which the elements are few and
their capactity for composition as great as possible. The most
remarkable adaptation to these requirements is the Arabic sys-
tem of numeration and notation. The Arabic figures (1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0), and various sign supplements, are few
enough to satisfy any critic. The method of combining these
characters and giving them value according to the place which
they occupy toward the right or left, each figure being worth ten
times as much every place toward the left, is one of remarkable
j)ower. The value of the method is increased by the simple
system of grouping the places and naming the groups. The
Roman notation, as any one can understand who will take the
time to think about it, is far inferior to the Arabic system,
and, except as a means in expressing diiferences in emphasis,
has become almost obsolete. Only one other system, the pro-
posed duodecimal notation, in which two additional characters
are employed, and in which each figure toward the left is
worth twelve times as much as if it stood a place further
toward the right, is superior to the Arabic, or decimal system.
It is superior to the Arabic system in its greater capacity to
express common fractions in few figures. But, whatever may
be said about the numeration and notation, i.e., about speak-
ing, writing, and reading numbers, this is obvious, that numer-
ation and notation, as a sui generis and necessary means in
number-operation, must be made the subject of special study.
TTie Subject of Arithmetic. (1) From the foregoing consid-
erations it appears that the properties and relations of num-
bers, together with the number-operations (synthesis, analysis,
and comparison) and the language-means, are the " sul)ject"
of arithmetic. (2) The concrete applications of the number-

244 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

operations, as well as many other problems found in our arith-
metics, belong essentially to the domain of logic. Indeed, all
problems are logical exercises. In other words, problems are
statements of conditions, or premises, and the worker is re-
quired to construct the syllogism or series of syllogisms, by
means of which he can obtain the conclusion. It must, how-
ever, be remembered that, while these logical processes require
the services of arithmetic, they are not in the technical sense
the " subject" of arithmetic,

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ARITHMETIC.

Three things must be included in our present conception of
arithmetic: (1) A well-defined system of operations; (2) An
organic body of Principles ; and (3) The logical adjustment
of arithmetic to practical and theoretical spheres. The mental
steps in the development of arithmetic are respectively : (1)
Observation, (2) Induction, and (3) Deduction.

Observation in Arithmetic. The observation of numbers
begins with the conception (see chapter on Mental Activity) of
number as quantity. The concept of number as quantity im-
plies the possibility of synthesis, analysis, and comparison. It
is assumed that, as a means in the conception of particular num-
bers, these processes, at least in their simplest modes, are spon-
taneous in all minds. When the mind matures it observes
variations in the elementary processes of synthesis, analysis,
and comparison, or subjects them voluntarily to experiments
in which the conditions are constantly varied. Some of these
variations are doubtless accidental ; but, whether accidental or
intentional, it is through them that all the species of synthesis,
analysis, and comparison of numbers are discovered. This
necessary genesis of the number-concepts determines both the
method and course of instruction in these concepts.

Induction in Arithmetic. Believing that things are sub-
ject to law, and that a knowledge of laws is advantageous in

AEITHMETIC 245

life, the observer commonly repeats his observations on num-
bers in order to discover the laws (general truths). Four spe-
cies of such general truths may thus be discovered : (1) Laws
to which, as determined by the nature of number, there can
obviously be no exceptions, and which are commonly termed
Axioms, as " The whole is greater than any of its parts" ; (2)
Laws to which, as contained in axioms, there can obviously
be no exceptions, and which are commonly termed Principles,
as " Multiplying the denominator or dividing the numerator
of a fraction by any number, divides the fraction by that
number" ; (3) Laws to which, since they are not obvious con-
tents of axioms, there may be exceptions, and which are com-
monly termed Theorems, as »^ + a;-f-41=a Prime Number,
ov{x -Yy) {x — y)=oi? — y^ ; and (4) Laws to which, as deter-
mined by experiment, it is convenient to conform in perform-
ing number- operations, and which are commonly termed Rules,
as " Invert the divisor and proceed as in multiplication."
Though many general truths of arithmetic have been discov-
ered by induction, as just explained, all of them except axioms,
and possibly these, too, can be obtained by deduction. The
latter method requires greater maturity of mind, and there-
fore belongs as a task to higher courses in arithmetic.

Deduction in Arithmetic. (1) Induction in the larger
sense, the sense in which it is taken in the preceding pages on
arithmetic, implies deduction in its narrow sense, as means by
which to verify the hypotheses that prompt observers to repeat
their observations. If, for instance, it be found that the cir-
cumference of the circle is equal to its diameter multiplied by
3.1416 (particular truth), it may be supposed that such will
be the case with all circles ; but this hypothesis must be veri-
fied by satisfactory experiments. Each experiment begins
with the assumption that the hypothesis is a general truth,
and is therefore a deduction in the narrow sense. If all these
deductions confirm the hypothesis, the induction is complete,

246 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

and may be expressed as follows : (a) The multiplication of
this diameter by 3.1416 gave the circumference of this circle;
(6) The deductive experiments represent all possibilities ; there-
fore, (c) The muliplication of the diameter by 3.1416 always
gives the circumference of a circle (a separate general truth of
complete Induction). The deductions involved in complete
induction are generally sub-conscious processes ; but they are
nevertheless ahvays present. (2) Having discovered general
truths in arithmetic, the student may derive less general truths
from these, and solve problems as particular cases. The pos-
sibility of solving problems as examples of a class, justifies
the hard labor involved in complete induction and constitutes
the practical argument in favor of arithmetic as a branch of
study in our schools.

The Definition of Arithmetic. The method of study just de-
scribed, together with a systematic statement of truths, consti-
tutes science. Arithmetic is therefore a science ; and, since its
subject is " numbers," it is correctly defined as the science of
numbers. The word numbers as a term in this definition
must, however, be understood to include the number-opera-
tions and the language of numbers and number-operations,
since all these together constitute the " subject" of the science.
And since one important end in view in the study of arith-
metic is the attainment of skill in performing the number-
operations, it is practically correct to define arithmetic in the
terms of our authors as " The science of numbers and the art
of computing with them."

The History of Arithmetic. A complete treatment of this
subject requires reference to the following points : (1) The his-
tory of the various number-processes ; (2) The history of nu-
meration and notation ; (3) The history of the discovery of
general truths of arithmetic ; (4) The history of the services
of arithmetic in practical and theoretical spheres ; and (5) The
history of the pioneers and masters of arithmetic. A complete

AEITHMETIC 247

consideration of these topics would require too much space for
our present limits, and an abridged treatment would be un-
satisfactory. A knowledge of the history of arithmetic is,
however, not only interesting to thoughtful students, but of
great importance to teachers of arithmetic. The history of
arithmetic prepares the teacher of arithmetic to appreciate
arithmetic, and therefore makes it more likely that earnest
work will be done in teaching arithmetic. Accordingly,
school teachers are respectfully referred to such helpful works
as (1) "The Philosophy of Arithmetic," by Dr. Edward
Brooks; (2) "The History of Mathematics," by Florian

Cajori.

B. INSTRUCTION IN ARITHMETIC.

The nature of arithmetic makes inquiry into the following
subjects a necessity for teachers of arithmetic : (1) The Courses
of Instruction in Arithmetic; (2) The Ends in View; (3)
The Methods of Instruction; (4) Written Arithmetic; (5)
Mental Arithmetic ; and (6) The Importance of Arithmetic.

THE COURSES OF AEITHMETIC.

The courses of instruction in arithmetic, as in other branches,
are determined by at least three important factors : (1) The
evolution of arithmetic ; (2) The pupil's possible progress ;
and (3) The needs of life and science.

The Evolution of Arithmetic. Three degrees of difficulty
are distinguishable in the study of arithmetic : (1) The stage
of obvious relations, when the numbers in question do not pass
perception, and required operations, as well as the required
thoughts, are simple ; (2) The stage of remoter relations, when
the numbers in question require imagination as a supplement
to perception, and the required operations, or their applications
to life and science, are complex ; and (3) The stage of remotest
relations, when the numbers in question pass imagination, and
the required operations, or their apj)lications to life and science,

248 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

are very complex. These three degrees of difficulty must be
respected. (See Principles of Instruction.)

The Pupil's Progress. Psychology discovers three stages
of possibility in study : (1) The stage of dependence, when con-
crete thinking predominates very much over abstract thinking,
and imitation (Principles of Knowledge) is the rule ; (2) The
stage of transition, when abstract thinking is closely coordinate
with concrete thinking, and the pupil depends more upon his
own resources ; and (3) The stage of independence, when ab-
stract thinking predominates over concrete thinking, and the
pupil depends virtually upon his own resources. These stages
of possibility must be respected. (See the First, Second, and
Third Principles of Instruction.)

The Needs of Life and Science. The needs of life and
science cannot aifect the order in which the subjects and phases
of arithmetic should follow each other, since these are abso-
lutely a matter of relation between the subject and the pupil ;
but these needs, unless indeed schools owe nothing to life, and
science can shift without arithmetic, must be recognized in de-
termining how much arithmetic a pupil should study. (See
the Fifth General Principle of Education, and the Fourth
Principle of Instruction.)

The Necessary Courses of Arithmetic. If the matter of
arithmetic must be adjusted to the stages of the pupil's possi-
bility (First Principle of Instruction) and to his lot (Fourth
Principle of Instruction), there must evidently be the follow-
ing courses of instruction : (1) The Elementary Course ; (2)
The Intermediate Course ; and (3) The Higher Course.

I. ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC.

The distinctive features of instruction in elementary arith-
metic arrange themselves under three heads : (1) The Ends in
View ; (2) The Method of Instruction ; and (3) The Order of
Subjects.

AEITHMETIC 249

The Ends in View in Elementary Arithmetic. The
right ends (see Principles of Education) in view in elementary
arithmetic are as follows : (1) To build such number-concepts
(integral; fractional, and denominate), and such concepts of
operation (synthesis, analysis, and comparison) as may be pos-
sible by way of perceptive experiments, and such number-lan-
guage (speaking, writing, and reading) as may be necessary in
these tasks ; (2) To train pupils to perform the " four" opera-
tions (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) as
intelligently, accurately, quickly, and neatly, as possible, first
with integers, then with fractions, and finally with denominate
numbers ; (3) To develop the power to work such problems as
arise in the young pupil's life, and such disciplinary exercises
as good sense may dictate ; and (4) To develop some ability
in describing numbers and operations, and in explaining obvious
relations.

The Method of Instruction in Elementary Arithmetic.
The logical genesis of knowledge (see " Principles of Knowl-
edge," and " The Psychology of Arithmetic") determines the
method of instruction. (See Fifth Principle of Instruction.)
Therefore (see Tenth Principle of Instruction) the tasks of in-
struction in elementary arithmetic (see preceding paragraph)
can be accomplished only by the "development" method,
whose conspicuous features, as explained, are (1) Observation,
(2) Induction, and (3) Deduction.

Teaching the Number- Concepts. The events in the practical
development of the number-concepts are perception, concep-
tion, expression, and recognition. (1) Inasmuch as numbers
must at first be thought as the " how many" of things, things
are the indispensable means in lessons on numbers. The pupil
must be required to observe the number (how many) in any
convenient collection of objects, such as beans, splints, strokes,
etc. The attention of the pupil in these observations must be
kept upon the number rather than upon the nature and rela-

250 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

tion of the objects observed. The required attention is more
complex than it seems ; it really amounts to perception, direct
comparison, and abstraction. (2) The successive abstractions
in this process of attention, supply the pupil's mind with the
particulars out of which he spontaneously builds his concept
of the number in question, as one, three, five. (3) The name
of the number must, of course, be associated with the idea of
the number to be taught, as " five." (See First Principle of
Knowledge.) The pupil should be required to write and read,
as well as speak, the name of the number which he is learning,
although, in order to keep the pupil from thinking simply signs
instead of numbers, the writing and reading ought to be omitted
the first few weeks. (4) The pupil really defines a number to
himself in his conception of the number, formed, as just ex-
plained, by counting objects ; but such conceptions should be
reinforced by many recognitions of the number learned. It is
by means of such deductive recognitions that the pupil's induc-
tions (conceptions) become his permanent possessions.

Teaching the Concepts of Operation. When the pupil knows
of " how many" a number, as " four," consists ; that is, when
he has learned the number as a " quantity," he should be led
to see the possible arrangements of the " units" of which the
quantity is constituted. In other words, objects must be so
placed, let us say on a table, that the pupil comprehends the
followina: abstract truths in the concrete :

4 = 1 + 1 + 1+1 4 — 1 = 3 4 = 1x4 4h-1 = 4

4^2 + 1 + 1 4 — 2 = 2 4 = 2x2 4--2 = 2

4=3+1 4—3=1

4 = 2 + 2 4 — 4 = 0

As soon as possible (see Principles of Instruction) the pupil
should be required to record his experiments by means of
signs and figures, as in the text. The end in view in all such
elementary exercises (perceptive experiments) is to teach the

ARITHMETIC 251

concepts of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
The systematic treatment of the numbers from one to a hun-
dred, and even beyond that, in the way just described, is
sometimes called the " Grube Method," in honor of the cele-
brated German who first developed these exercises into a sys-
tem. (See Professor Seeley's excellent adaptation of the Grube
system to American schools.)

Teaching Number-Language. The Arabic number- language
(see page 243) is composite. Accordingly (see the Second
Principle of Instruction), the method of teaching it is by
" synthesis of elements." The process of teaching number-
language should begin, as explained in the paragraph on
" Teaching the Number-Concepts," with the oral names of
the numbers, as one, two, three, etc. These names should
also be written and read as soon as these abstract exercises are
appropriate. When the pupil has learned to speak, write, and
read the elements of the Arabic number-language, the follow-
ing exercises should be taken up in order : (1) Ten and one,
ten and two, etc., up to ten and nine, should be illustrated by
means of objects. The names eleven, twelve, etc., up to
twenty, must, of course, be added by associating them with
the names ten and one, ten and two, etc. (2) The pupil
should next be taught to count two tens and one, etc., up to
nine tens and nine, the names twenty-one, etc., being added
as before. (3) The numbers from one hundred to one thou-
sand may be illustrated by means of bundles of splints, etc.
(4) At any time after the pupil has learned to write nine, he
may be taught to write ten and two, ten and one, and then
ten, to help him see the use of zero. Thus: 1 | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 0.
This lesson on " place- value" is the " key" lesson to the Arabic
system of notation and numeration ; it is the key lesson to all
the higher number-groups. (5) When the pupil has learned
to write as far as nine tens and nine, he must be tauffht to
call the collection of ten tens one hundred, writing it 1 | 0 | 0.

252

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The terms units, tens, and hundreds should now be introduced,
the " numeration" at first always preceding the " reading" of
the number. (6) When the pupil has learned to write, numer-
ate, and read as far as nine hundred ninety-nine, he must be
taught to call the collection of ten hundred one thousand,
writing it 1 | 0 j 0 | 0. (7) Finally, the pupil must be taught
that higher groups, as millions, billions, etc., are formed by
multiplying the lower group by one hundred instead of ten.
This concept can be taught most conveniently by the follow-
ing arrangement, the same figures being used for all groups at
first in order to simplify the conception. Thus :

Millions,

Thousands,

ll t u
1 2 5

h t u
1 2 5

h t u
1 2 5

Of course, it must not be forgotten that while these les-
sons on number-language are being given, the Grube exer-
cises are to be continued and the " four" operations devel-
oped into formal addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division.

Teaching the Number -Operations. The pupil is ready (see
First and Second Principles of Instruction) for lessons in
formal addition and subtraction as soon as he has made a fair
start in the Grube exercises. It is better to teach addition
and subtraction together, the two being natural complements,
and easily illustrated as complements. The pupil is ready for
lessons in formal multiplication and division as soon as he
knows the required " tables." It is better to teach multipli-
cation and division together, not only because they are natural
complements, but also because the same " tables" can be used.
The " four" operations and the construction of the " tables,"
must be made the subject of as many observations as may be
necessary for the pupil's understanding and memory. (1) The

ARITHMETIC 253

teacher must work illustrative examples, the pupil observing
and remembering the process, thus reasoning from the partic-
ular cases to the " rule." (2) The pupil must be made to un-
derstand that he "carries," "borrows," passes "toward the
left," or "toward the right," in the "four" operations, be-
cause he can thus utilize the " place value" of the figures in
his notations. This process of reasoning from the first uses
of "place" in notation to others, and still others, even to its
general use, is not as difficult an induction for pupils as is
sometimes supposed, provided that the new cases are properly
graded from the simple to the complex. Objective illus-
trations are, of course, necessary in the earliest explanations,
(3) Many exercises (deductions) must be added in order to
reinforce the pupil's inductions, to make them permanent pos-
sessions, and to develop speed, as well as accuracy and neat-
ness in performing the operations. (4) Common fractions,
decimal fractions, and denominate numbers, should be gradu-
ally introduced into the " four" operations, but the tasks must
be carefully graded. (5) The pupil's impressions will be deep-
ened and corrected very effectively by the effort to describe
and explain, while at the same time there will be a great gain
for the pupil's language.

Teaching Exercises and Problems. The pupil should be re-
quired to Avork exercises in which the " four" operations, or as
many of them as are known to the pupil, are so combined as
to tax and thus develop his thinking powers. (See the First,
Second, Sixth, and Seventh Principles of Instruction.) In
the same way and for the same reason, as well as in the
interests of practical life, concrete problems should be con-
structed for the pupil. The teacher should not be too ready
to assist his pupils in such exercises and problems ; he should,
however, give them such directions, ask such questions, and
prepare such paths, as will enable them to help themselves.
(See the Eighth Principle of Instruction.)

254 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The Means in Elementary Arithmetic. The course in ele-
mentary arithmetic should extend through the pupil's first five
years. (See the First, Third, and Fourth Principles of Instruc-
tion.) (1) So far as the understanding of the child is in ques-
tion, it matters very little whether books be used or not, since
written language will be used in board-assignments as well as
in books. Probably it would be best for several reasons to
use no books the first two years, great care being taken in
that event to write the questions very plainly in a conspicuous
place, so as to save the pupil's eyes. An appropriate book
should be used after the second year, both as a matter of econ-
omy in time, and as an instrument in the educational transi-
tion of the child. As a moral precaution, the work required
of elementary arithmetic pupils between recitations should be
done in school hours and under the teacher's eye. (2) The
questions should often be recited without resort to figures in
the performance of the necessary number-operations, and in
complete sentences ; but generally the reasoning process should
be expressed only in outline by means of figures and such
supplementary words as may be necessary. In such a com-
promise between " mental" and " written" arithmetic, the
former will serve as a special discipline in analysis and
language ; the latter will save time and train in practical
speed.

The Order of Subjects in Elementary Arithmetic. The
submitted list of subjects is a catalogue of things to be taught
in elementary arithmetic, and somewhat in order: (1) The
concepts of the integral numbers, togetlier with counting,
Grube exercises, and the necessary number-language. (2) The
'' four" operations with integral numbers, together with the
necessary "tables," number-language, Grube exercises, and
concrete problems. (3) The concepts of the comuion fractions,
together with the corresponding Grube exercises, progress in
the four operations with integers, progress in notation and

ARITHMETIC 255

numeration, progress in concrete problems, and progress in ex-
planation. (4) The rules of the four operations with common
fractions, together with " speed" drills and progress in former
subjects. (5) The concepts of the decimal fractions, together
with the rules of the four decimal operations and progress
in all preceding subjects. (6) The concepts of the simpler
denominate numbers, together with the four operations, the
necessary tables, and progress in all preceding subjects.

Illustrative Lessons in Elementary Arithmetic. The
subjoined lessons are designed to be illustrations of the devel-
opment method (observation, induction, and deduction) in ele-
mentary arithmetic.

The Concept " Five." Teacher. How many grains of
corn have I just now placed before you, James ? James. Four
and one. T. Yes ; four and one, or five. Please pick up five
books and take them to Jane. Count five cracks in the floor,
touching each place with this pointer. Which of the cracks
is five, Miriam? Miriam. It takes all of them together to
make five. T. Please arrange these splints in fives, like this,
#,=gf,etc.

The Grube Treatment of " Pour." Teacher. What have
I done, Henry ? Henry. You placed four blocks on the table.
T. Please arrange them in a row, placing them a little way
apart from each other. What can you now say about the
four blocks ? H. Four blocks are one and one and one and
one block. T. Please record what you have found out.
(Henry writes on the board, as he has been instructed, 4 = 1
+ 1 + 1 + 1.) T. Move the first block against the second.
What can you now say about the four blocks, Annie ? Aniiie.
Four blocks are two blocks and one block and one block. T.
Please record right below our first record. Now arrange them
in another way, James. James. This way four is two and
two, but if I place them thus, four is three and one. T. Very
well ; now record your facts. The blocks, as you see, are all

256 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

together. Please take one away, James, and tell what is true
of four. James. Four less one is three. T. Dodd, you may
keep the record at the board to the end of the recitation.
James, put back the block which you took. Now, Mabel,
give me two blocks, and tell what is true of four and the
two. Mahel. Four less two is two. T. Take three away.
Four. Yes, Dodd, your record is correct. Now put the
blocks right in front of James and close together. How
many times — I mean how often — can you touch a different
block until you have touched them all, James ? James. I can
touch four times. T. Then how many times one is four,
James? James. Four is four times one. T. How many
times can you touch all the blocks at once, James ? James.
Only one time. T. Four is how many times four ? James.
Four is one time four. T. Put the blocks together again.
Mabel, please take two blocks from the table. How often can
you take two from four ? Mabel. I can do it two times. T.
Then how many times does four allow you to take two away ?
Mahel. Two times. T. Yes ; four contains two just two times.
Now how many times does four "contain" four? Mabel.
Four contains four only one time. T. How many times does
four contain onef M. Four contains one four times. T.
Please take these splints, each of you only four, and arrange
them as we arranged the blocks. Write the records on your
slate, and let me see them when you recite again. (By and by,
when the pupils know the meanings of the signs +, — , X,
-^, very well, they should be requested to think all the possi-
bilities of a number, and record the facts by means of the
signs in an orderly way.)

The Names of Numbers. Teacher. Please count the
splints on the table before you, James. J. There are nine.
T. Write the figure "nine." (Handing another splint to
James.) How many are there now ? James. Ten. T. Please
write what you said. J. I do not know how. T. You will

ARITHMETIC 257

be able to write ten by and by. Now, suppose we tie ten
splints into a bundle, and call it " one ten." How many will
there be, if we add two splints ? James. There will be " one
ten" and two. T. Yes ; one ten and two, or, as we say,
" twelve." (The new names are introduced by " association.")
Now watch, and I will show you how to write " twelve,"
that is, " one ten" and two. I will write the " one ten" to the
left of the figure 1, as you see. Can you write "one ten"
and one, Annie ? A. 1 think I can. (Writes.) T. That is
right. Now, James, can you write ten, that is, " one" ten ?
J. I must write the figure 1 to the left, but I do not know
what to write to the right of the figure 1. T. How many
more than ten splints have you? James. I have no more
than ten. T. Then, to show that you have no more than
" one" ten, you must write this — it is called " zero" — to the
right of the figure 1. Now write ten and six. That is correct.
Now change the word '• ten" into " teen," and say six before it.
James. Sixteen. T. Please write ten and nine, Jennie. What
may we say instead of ten and nine ? J. Nineteen. T. Now
write ten and ten, Jennie. J. Ten and ten is "two tens."
Must I write the figure 2 to the left and 0 to the right?
T. That is just what you must do. (Jennie writes.) T. We
said twelve instead of ten and two, so we say " twenty" in-
stead of " two tens." Please write " two tens" and three.
What other name will do ? J". I think we can say twenty
and three. T. Yes ; twenty and three, or, because it is a little
shorter, " twenty-three," (New names thus introduced should
always be written on the board, and fixed in the child's mem-
ory. The pupil should, therefore, write these names as often
as necessary.)

" Carrying." Teacher. Please add the first column of this
problem. What is your answer, Mary? M. It is fifteen.
T. What can you say instead of fifteen ? M. " One ten" and
five. T. Where are the two figures, 1 and 5, to be placed ?

17

258 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

M. Perhaps the figure 5 should be placed under the first col-
umn, and the figure 1 under the second. T. Why do you
think so, Mary? 31. The second column is a column of
" tens" (the pupil has learned this before), and the figure 1 is
" one ten." T. That is a good thought, Mary ; but instead
of putting the " one ten" down at once, " carry" it over into
the second column, and add it to the sum of the second col-
umn. M. That makes "eleven tens." T. Now, what will
you do with the " eleven tens," Mary ? M. " Eleven tens," or
" ten tens" and " one ten," is the same as " one hundred" and
" one ten." (This fact was learned in a preceding lesson on no-
tation and numeration.) I must write the " one ten" under the
" tens" column, and the " one hundred" to the left. T. Have
you a " hundreds" column to add ? M. No, sir. T. What
right have you to write " one hundred" to the left of " one
ten" in your answer ? ilf. I think it must be put there be-
cause it would be put there if we had a " hundreds" column
to add. T. You have answered correctly. We must now
try a problem with a " hundreds" column in it. Please work
these three problems (constructing them) for your afternoon
recitation. (Speed-drills should usually follow.)

" Borrowing-." Teacher. Please read this problem (point-
ing to the board), Florence. F. From 609 take 235. T.
The class may work it. Please go to the board (They
work). (Seeing that the class hesitates after " 5 from 9 leaves
4") What is the trouble, Frank? F. There is no "ten"
from which to take " three tens." T. What do people some-
times do to get money to pay a debt? F. Father borrowed
money from Mr. Jones to pay for our wagon. T. Suppose,
then, that you " borrow" " one" from our zero's left neighbor.
How many " tens" is the borrowed " one" worth ? F. It is
equal to " ten tens." (This was learned in preceding lessons
on notation and numeration.) T. What can you do now?
Grace. Three from ten leaves seven (putting it down). T.

ARITHMETIC 259

Can you all work your problem now? (They work, but
Frank forgets that he borrowed " one" from neighbor " six.")
T. How did you get " four" as your last figure, Frank ? F.
I took two from six, and had four left. Emma (raising her
hand). Frank should have said " two from five." (Frank,
seeing his error, makes the necessary correction.) T. Please
solve the following problems (writing them), and bring them
this afternoon. (Speed-drills in adding and subtracting
should follow. The teacher should encourage self-dependence
in these young workers.)

The "Three Times" Table. Teacher (standing at the
board). How many times have I written the figure 3, George ?
G. Only one time. T. Then one time 3 is how many ? G.
One time 3 is 3. T. I will write what you said (writing
3X1=3). T. How many times have I written the figure 3
now ? Class. Two times. T. Please add the two 3's. How
many does it make? C. Six. T. Then 2 times 3 is how
many? Neivton. Two times 3 is 6. T. Please write it
under (3X1= 3). (Newton writes (3x2 = 6).) Can
you now take 3 three times, and write it down? Four
times, etc. ?

Taught in this constructive way, the multiplication tables
will be understood, and can be readily reproduced by the
pupils. These reconstructions should, of course, be required.
The pupil should speah as well as ivrite the tables, until it can be
done very rapidly, " forward" at first, and then " backward."
"When these things have been done (by adding and subtract-
ing), the tables should be drilled into " memories," i.e., they
should be made "automatic." The figures from 1 to 12 may
be arranged in a circle (the " table-figure" in the centre), for
drill. This is the trying stage in the mastery of a multiplica-
tion table, but the work must be done if the tables are ever to
serve their purpose, namely, economy in multiplication and
division. Problems involving the tables as far as known

260 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

should be assigned in great numbers, until the tables become
permanent and serviceable possessions.

Multiplying-. Where to place the multiplier, with which
figures to multiply in order, and how to place the partial
products, must be taught, as in the preceding lessons, by ob-
servation of examples, thus requiring induction in order to
think the " rule" and deductive exercises to fix it. The
reasons fi)r the steps can be taught a little later by generalizing
the concept of "place" in notation. (The methods-student
should be required to write out the recitations as illustrated.)

Dividing. Where to place the divisor, dividend, and quo-
tient, how to proceed in short division, how to proceed in long
division, and how to use the multiplication tables in division,
and how to do whatever else must be done, must be taught in
the same way as above. It is believed that " long" division
is more complex than " short" division, and that it should,
therefore, be introduced a little later. The teacher should
work the same problem both ways side by side on the board,
so that the pupils can see that long and short division are sim-
ply two modes of getting the same result. The divisor in this
contrast of long and short division should be less than 10 at
first. (The methods-student should be required to write out
the recitation.)

Speed-Drills in the Four Operations. Among the most im-
portant deductive exercises in arithmetic are speed-drills, i.e.,
practice in rapid adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing.
The ability to perform these operations rapidly without mis-
take is a great practical advantage.

(1) The ability to add rapidly without mistake is probably
the least common and the most important. Pupils should be
taught to add by 2's, 3's, 4's, 5's, 6's, 7's, 8's, etc., and then
irregularly. These drills sliould sometimes be conducted with-
out the aid of figures, and sometimes with figures.

(2) Finding the sum and difference of any two numbers is

ARITHMETIC 261

an excellent exercise for the development of arithmetical
speed. In these exercises the teacher may proceed in two
ways : (a) He may write some number, as 7, on the board,
and then name other numbers, as 4, 3, 6, etc., expecting the
pupil or pupils to tell the sum and difference at once. (6)
He may name two numbers each time, as 5 and 8, expecting
the pupils to say IS, S, at once. At first the answers may be
given in sentences, " The sum of 5 and 8 is 13 ; the difference
is 3."

(3) Four columns of figures headed +, — , X, and -^ re-
spectively, all beginning with 1 and ending with the figure to
which the class has reached in multiplication and division,
should be used as a speed-drill in the four operations. When,
for example, the class has studied the " 9 times" table, the
columns should be written thus :

+ - X -^

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

4

4

4

4

5

5

5

5

6

6

6

6

7

7

7

7

8

8

8

8

9

9

9

9

The teacher points to any figure in any column, avoiding
" remainders," and the pupil or pupils at ouce name the sum,
difference, product, or quotient.

The " Fraction" Concepts. Teacher. What have I done,
Mary ? M. You have broken a stick of candy into three pieces.
T. Please hold the pieces side by side. What is true, class ?
C. The pieces are alike. T. What may we call oTie of the
three " equal parts" into which the candy was broken, Paul ?
P. A three-part. T. Yes; a three-part, or a third. How

262 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

many thirds do I hold up now ? P. Two thirds. (Similar
questions should be used with other divisions, cuts, breaks,
etc., until the pupil sees how to name the parts, and why.)
Teacher. What might we call one or more equal parts of a
thing ? (No one can tell.) One or more of the equal parts of
a thing, is called a Fraction. James, what is a fraction?
The class may think of three-fourths. Jane, can you show
me three-fourths of this apple (handing her a knife) ? Harry,
please take these beans and arrange them in four equal heaps.
How many beans are there in all ? How many are there in
each heap ? What may we call one of these equal heaps of
beans ? Then, what is one- fourth of twelve ? Three-fourths ?
How many fourths are there in all ?

The " Terms" of a Fraction. Teacher. What is one of
the four equal parts of this apple called, Ralph ? R. One-
fourth. T. Please write the word on the board. (Ralph
writes " one-fourth.") Teacher. Let me write it. (Writes it
thus (^1^) at first, and then |.) Into how many parts
have I divided this apple, class? C. Into four parts. T.
Which figure shows it, Clara? C. The figure 4. T. That
"4" is called the Denominator (writing the word). What
does the denominator show, James ? How many parts do I
hold in my left hand ? Class. One. ' T. Please point to the
figure which shows how many parts I have taken. (Ralph
points to the figure above the line.) T. That " 1" is called
the Numerator. Nell, what is the numerator of a fraction ?
(Many drills will be necessary to make the terms learned per-
manent possessions of the pupil's understanding and memory.)

Two-Thirds and Four-Sixths. Teacher. Into how many
equal parts have I divided this circle (pointing to it) ? What
is one part called, Herbert? H. One-third. T. What are
two parts called? H. Two-thirds. T. Please divide each
third into two equal parts. How many parts are there in all ?
What is one of your six equal parts called? How many

AEITHMETIC 263

sixths are there in two-thirds ? How many thirds can you
make out of four-sixths ? Six-sixths ? (In all these lessons —
and there should be many with many variations in the means —
the pupil should be conducted from the concrete to the abstract,
and from the simple to the complex.)

Two-Thirds of Three-Fourths. Teacher. Please draw a
square, and divide it into four equal parts, Bessie ? What is
one of your parts called ? Now divide each fourth into three
equal parts. How many parts are there in all ? What is one
of these small parts called ? What part of one-fourth is one-
twelfth ? How many twelfths does it take to make two-thirds
of one-fourth? Two-thirds of three-fourths? I will now
show you how to get the same answer with figures. What
have I done, Walter ? W. You have multiplied the numera-
tors, 2 and 3, together and written the 6 as a numerator. T.
And now ? W. You have multiplied the denominators, 3 and
4, together and written the 12 as new denominator. T. What
can I do to make the six-twelfths one-half? W. Divide both
numbers by 6. (By and by, but not at first, the device of
cancelling should be introduced into such problems.)

Division by Fractions. Teacher. If James can drink two
pints of milk a day, how many days will it take him to drink
six pints, Jacob? /. It will take him just three days. T.
How did you get your answer ? J". I divided 6 by 2. T.
Then, if James could drink only a half-pint every day, how
must you reckon out how long it will take him to drink the
six pints ? J. I must divide by one-half. T. Please try it.
(James knows how to divide 6 by 2, but cannot divide 6
by ^.) T. Let me show you, James. This is the problem
(writes 6 — ^). It must be written thus (writes f X f = ^)'
What did I do to get the 12? J. You turned the divi-
sor (^) upside down, and did what must be done in multi-
plication. T. Yes; I "inverted" the divisor, and proceeded
as in multiplication. What then must we always do when the

264 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

divisor is a fraction ? You may all go to the board. Please
divide seven by three-fourths. (Other exercises must, of
course, be added.)

The reason for " inverting" the divisor when it is a fraction
is too difficult at this point ; it is a question of " reciprocal re-
lation," and requires abstract reasoning. But by and by the
pupil must be led to see that if, for example, one (3-thirds)
contains one (3-thirds) just one time, it must contain 2-thirds
as often as 2 is contained into 3, or f ; that the " inversion"
of the divisor (|), is the " quotient" of unity divided by the
fraction ; and that this quotient must be multiplied by 6 to get
the vt^hole quotient.

The " Decimal" Concepts. Teacher. Emily, what is one
of ten equal parts of anything called? E. One-tenth. T.
Please write it with figures. Let me show the class another
way of writing -jig-, (Writes .1.) What have I done ? George.
You wrote the figure 1 with a dot before it. T. The dot
stands for the 10 in ^, and is called the Decimal point.
Please read this (pointing to .3). Fi^anh. I think it is three-
tenths. T. Is three-tenths a whole number ? F. It is a frac-
tion. T. What, then, may we call the " 3" with a decimal
point before it, Helen 2 H. A decimal fraction. T. Please
read this (writing .12). James (after a little silence on the
part of the class). The one is one-tenth, but I do not know
what to call the 2. T. If the decimal point before one figure
stands for 10, for what must it stand before two figures ? (The
class comes to a dead halt, and the teacher must tell them
that before two figures the decimal point stands for 100, before
three figures for 1000, and that therefore .12 is read 12 hun-
dredths, and .235 two hundred thirty-five thousandths. A little
more drill will fix the mode of decimal notation and numera-
tion.)

The next lesson introduces the decimal operations, the teacher
working examples, showing where to place the decimal point,

ARITHMETIC 265

until by induction the pupils learn the "rules." The best
motto in all these lessons is to " make haste slowly," since, as
the teacher well knows, percentage problems require absolute
mastery of the decimal operations.

The Denominate Numbers. (1) Every table should be
built up concretely, i.e., by actual measurements. When, for
example, the pupil has seen that 2 pints make a quart, 8
quarts a peck, etc., the observations may be arranged into
tables. These tables must, of course, for the sake of economy,
be committed. This work is not difficult if the tables are
properly built. (2) Playing " store" is a most interesting and
eifective way of combining a number of tables into practical
use. (3) The denominate operations are to be taught by the
development method, the teacher working examples and ask-
ing such questions or adding such explanations as may help the
pupil in his inductions. Plenty of practical work should be
assigned, and the work should include both common and deci-
mal fractions, though, of course, in the elementary course, all
the operations should be simple enough for the pupil's present
powers. (The methods-student should be required to teach
illustrative lessons.)

It is not supposed even for a moment that every teacher
will develop a concept or a rule in just the same language or
the same syllogisms, but all can work out the development
ideal.

II. INTERMEDIATE ARITHMETIC.

The intermediate course, i.e., the course of remoter relations
(see page 247), belongs for that reason to the period of life
commonly called the " Grammar School" period. It should
extend from the age of about eleven years to that of fourteen.
The special features of intermediate arithmetic fall naturally
under the following heads : (1) The Ends in View ; (2) The
Methods of Instruction; (3) The Order of Subjects; (4)
"Written Arithmetic ; and (5) Mental Arithmetic.

266 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The Ends in View in Intermediate Arithmetic. The
things to be accomplished in the course of intermediate arith-
metic are as follows : (1) Great proficiency in the subjects taken
up in the elementary course, and (2) Advancement to such
subjects as by reason of their greater complexity afford harder
discipline and such as are necessary in the expanded and still
expanding life of the pupil. These points are so obvious that
they require no extended development, and will be assumed in
the following pages.

The Method of Instruction in Intermediate Arithmetic.
The nature of the new subjects to which the pupil is to be in-
troduced in intermediate arithmetic requires, as was explained
(see page 247), no new method ; but, since arithmetic is to be
developed into a useful art, deduction, the form of reasoning
that applies general truths to the details of life, must be
allowed to predominate over induction. The opportunity for
deductive reasoning, as was pointed out (see page 247), is very
great. Two topics deserve our special attention at this time :

(1) The Development of Concepts, Eules, and Axioms; and

(2) The Derivation of Principles and Rules.

The Development of Concepts in Intermediate Arithmetic.
Such concepts as ratio, proportion, percentage, progression,
involution, and evolution, must obviously be developed by
observation of examples, consequent induction, and proof
deductions.

The Development of Rules in Intermediate Arithmetic. Pupils
in arithmetic should seldom, except in mensuration and sev-
eral other cases, be allowed to work "by rule." Work " by
rule" is almost certain to dwarf the analytic habit so desirable
in good thinking. Therefore, rules in intermediate arithmetic,
with the exceptions as stated, should be developed as before
by analytic observation of examples and such induction as
will always look for variations in new problems.

The Development of Aosioms, Axioms are generally defined

ARITHMETIC 267

as self-evident truths. The belief has prevailed that axioms
are absolutely a •priori truths, i.e., truths at which the mind
arrives without the inductive process. This conclusion is
probably incorrect. It is altogether likely that axioms differ
from other general truths only in this, that they are obviously
undeniable and universal. Induction is, however, as it ap-
pears, their real origin, though the wonderful thing about
these inductions is the '"reach" to which the young mind
arrives so early in life. Indeed, the axioms of arithmetic are
all present in the child's mind before " lessons" begin. Take,
for example, the axiom that " The whole is greater than any
of its parts." Somewhere in childhood, nobody knows when,
the mind virtually thought the subjoined syllogism :

' ' This whole is greater than any of its parts ;
This whole is a sample of all wholes ;
Therefore, any whole is greater than any of its parts."

But, although the child has probably arrived at all the axioms
of arithmetic by induction long before it could state the syllo-
gism, it is obviously a splendid discipline for an intermediate
pupil to illustrate the origin of the various axioms and to state
the syllogisms in which they are the conclusion.

The Derivation of Principles. Principles, as was shown on
page 245, can be developed by induction, as in the case of
factoring, and should be so developed ; but, as a most effective
discipline, they should also be derived from axioms, i.e., they
should be demonstrated, or proved, deductively. Take, for
example, the principle that " Dividing the denominator of a
fraction by any number multiplies the value of the fraction
by that number." This truth should first be illustrated in the
concrete, and developed by induction ; but it should then be
referred to the axiom one of whose derivatives it is, and
proved by deductive reasoning. The principle in question
rests on the axiom that " A whole is the sum of all its parts."

268 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Dividing the denominator by any number is the same as di-
viding a whole into fewer parts, each of which must also be
the sum of the smaller parts that would have been the results
of dividing the whole by a larger number, and the larger parts
must obviously be as much larger as the number by which it
was proposed to divide the denominator. Accordingly, " Di-
viding the denominator, etc.'^ The principles of the " four"
operations, and those of fractions and factoring, should be thus
proved in intermediate arithmetic. Much of this work of de-
duction, of course, cannot be done before the high-school period.
The Derivation of Rules. It is a great satisfaction to the
mind, and a great practical advantage, to be able to show that
rules can be gotten from principles, just as principles can be
derived from axioms ; and a still greater conquest, to be able
to get original rules from given principles. Take, for ex-
ample, the rule for finding the " greatest common divisor" of
fractions. The rule should be developed " by trial," i.e., by
observation and induction ; but it should also be deduced from
the principle that " Dividing the numerator of a fraction, or
multiplying its denominator, by any number, divides the
value of the fraction by that number." Suppose the fractions
to be f , f, f , and -^. The " greatest common divisor" is
wanted, i.e., the largest number that will divide all the frac-
tions exactly. How shall it be done? Referring to our
principle, we are told how to proceed in case of one frac-
tion ; we must divide the numerator and multiply the denom-
inator. Having treated all the numerators "by trial," we
find the greatest common dividing number to be 2. The " least
common multiple" of the denominators must, according to the
stated principle, be the divisor wanted, since it contains all the
old denominators, i.e., divides them exactly. Therefore, in
the proposed problem the G. C. D. is -^. Much of this
work of deduction must, by reason of the dependence of
arithmetic on geometry and algebra, be deferred to a later

ARITHMETIC 269

course in arithmetic. Such is the case with the rules of men-
suration. Many rules, such as those of fractions, etc., can,
however, be referred to principles even in intermediate classes.

The Problems of Intermediate Arithmetic. The prob-
lems of intermediate arithmetic should, in accordance with the
ends in view, be complex enough for higher discipline, and
practical enough for the ends of life. Intermediate pupils
should be required to work problems with very little aid from
anybody, to state solutions in the best forms, and to explain
the problems in strictest logic. These requirements are ap-
plicable to both written and mental arithmetic.

The Order of Subjects in Intermediate Arithmetic.
Those operations in which the conceptions are complex, and
the relations somewhat remote, are the subjects of intermediate
arithmetic. They are, as was shown in the beginning of this
chapter, higher forms of the elementary conceptions and
processes. The logical dependence of subjects in arithmetic
determines their true order of presentation in text-books and
lessons. In practice the order of subjects is determined by
the adopted text-book. The arrangements of Brooks, Hull,
and Prince, are possibly as satisfactory as any.

a. WEITTEN ARITHMETIC.

The special features of written arithmetic fall under the
following heads : (1) Problems ; (2) Answers ; (3) Assign-
ment of Lessons ; (4) Preparation of Lessons ; and (5) Reci-
tation. These topics deserve attention in all the courses of
arithmetic, but are most conveniently treated in intermediate
arithmetic, since mental and written arithmetic are first sepa-
rated in this course.

The Problems of Written Arithmetic. The distinc-
tion between written and mental arithmetic is pointed out on
page 275. (1) Discipline is their common aim, and the prob-
lems under the various rules should be so varied in conditions

270 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

that they cannot be solved by any mechanical " the-rule-says-
so."

(2) Skill in computation^ i.e., brevity of statement and speed
in calculation^ is the special aim of written arithmetic. The
number, therefore, as well as the variety of problems under each
subject, should be adapted to this special purpose. When the
number of problems in the adopted text-book is not adequate
— and this must often happen — supplementary problems must
be provided. The proficient teacher will have no trouble in
the performance of this duty ; teachers of all grades will find
the books of Dr. John T. Prince (Arithmetic by Grades) very
suggestive and helpful.

The Answers to Problems in Written Arithmetic.
Authors of written arithmetics seem to believe that the an-
swers of problems should accomj)any the text, or, if not that,
they should at least be found in an appendix. Many teachers
approve of such text-books.

This position is open to grave objections. (1) Pupils will
work for the answer, and, having obtained the given answer,
they will not take the trouble to prove it. Of the two habits
thus formed, that of depending on others is a poor preparation
for life, and that of neglecting to prove truth is positively
dangerous. (2) It is certainly possible to do without such
answers. This has been practically demonstrated in the case
of mental arithmetic, where they are seldom found and rarely
desired. Moreover, pupils trained into the habit of proving
their own answers from the beginning, will not need such
make-shifts, while, at the same time, they are forming the
valuable habits of self-dependence and truth -seeking. It is,
therefore, to be lamented that our school arithmetics contain
such objectionable helps.

The question arises. Why do our authors give these answers,
and why do many teachers want such books ? The answer
consists of two items : (1) Authors are required to give such

ARITHMETIC 271

helps because the mass of teachers demand it ; and (2) The
demand grows out of the feeling of dependence which, through
this very bhinder in text-books, has become the habit of so
many teachers. Moreover, teachers suppose it to be a " saving
of time and labor" to have such books. This attitude of teach-
ers reveals a misconception of the teaching- process which is in-
defensible, except in novices. Where books containing an-
swers have been adopted, the teacher should do the best he can
to ignore them.

The Assignment of Lessons in Written Arithmetic.
The pupil should know just how much ground he is expected
to cover. Definite requirement is a stimulus in the prepara-
tion of lessons. Such suggestions and preparatory drills as
will put the pupil on the way to help himself, should be con-
nected with the assignment of lessons. If the same lesson can
be assigned to a number of pupils, the stimulus of definite as-
signments will be very effective, and the necessary suggestions
will do for the many as well as for one pupil. Generally it
will be found best to assign the next arithmetic lessons at the
dose of recitations. The teacher will then know just what
hints, directions, and helps, may be needed. In order to suc-
ceed in these matters, the arithmetic teacher must evidently
study every lesson every time he teaches it, even if that be a
hundred times. It is not possible for any ordinary human
being to remember the snags, switches, and pitfalls from year
to year, so well as to be able to dispense with thinking the
problem over every time.

The Preparation of Lessons in Written Arithmetic.
The lessons should never be so long as to make it impossible
to work all the problems, or at least all the doubtful ones.
In case of younger pupils, it is safest to require all problems
to be worked and offered for inspection ; in the case of older
pupils, successful recitation may be taken as sufficient evidence
of preparation. As a moral precaution, younger pupils should

272 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

work their lessons in school hours and under the teacher's eye ;
older pupils should be required to do some work out of school
hours. In all cases, the teacher should strive to cultivate self-
dependence in his workers.

The Recitation in Written Arithmetic. The character-
istics of a recitation in arithmetic can be most conveniently
considered under the following heads : (1) The Objects of the
Recitation ; (2) The Preparation of the Board ; (3) The As-
signment of Problems; (4) The Working of Problems; (5)
The Pupil's Explanation ; (6) Criticisms ; (7) The Teacher's
Pai-t in Problems; (8) Attention to the General Truths of
Arithmetic ; and (9) The Importance of Reviews.

The Objects of the Recitation. The objects of a recitation,
whether it be in arithmetic or any other branch, are as follows :
(1) To stimulate the pupil to study; (2) To exercise all the
functions of the pupil's mind ; and (3) To develop the subject
in question. In short, every lesson should count as so much
discipline and as so much progress in the subject.

The Preparation of the Board. At a given signal, the pupils
should "prepare the board," i.e., they should carefully erase
whatever interferes with the purpose of the recitation, and
write their names at the head of the board. After these pre-
liminaries, the pupils should face the teacher and wait for
assignments.

The Assignment of Problems. In case of younger pupils, the
same problem should be assigned to the whole class by dicta-
tion. The teacher should see to it that the pupils do not
" copy" in working the problem. In case of older pupils, a
different task should be assigned to every pupil. The ideal
way of assigning problems is to write them on prepared slips
of paper, together with the number of the problem and the
page of the book from which it may be taken, and to dis-
tribute the papers by lot. This plan is, however, not always
practicable. In such cases, the problems may be assigned by

ARITHMETIC 273

dictation, or by number and page. If no book is allowed at
the board — and that is best when books contain answers, or
when the class is small — ^the pupils should be taught to record
the conditions of the dictated problem in some " short-hand"
way. If books are used at the board — and this is allowable
when the class is very large, when the books do not have the
answers, or when the pupils are adults — the problems may be
assigned by number and page. The number and page by
which the problem was assigned should be written over the
pupils' board for the convenience of the teacher and the class.

The Working of the Problems. The pupils should be taught
to do beautiful as well as correct and rapid work at the board.
Precision and system are of great importance. Points, sym-
bols, lines, figures, etc., should, accordingly, be strictly correct,
and problems should be arranged as well as possible. No com-
munications should be allowed between workers. A quiet,
courteous, and natural dignity should be cultivated.

The PupiVs Explanation of Problems. As soon as a pupil
has worked his problem, he should quietly take a seat, or wait
for new orders from the teacher. When all, or nearly all, the
workers have done their work, the problems should be ex-
plained by the pupils. These explanations should be clear,
concise, and logical. The pupil explaining should stand erect
at the board, facing the teacher and the class as much as pos-
sible, holding the pointer in his right hand, and allowing the
left hand to drop at his side. The habit of speaking earnestly,
distinctly, and persuasively should be developed in these ex-
planatory exercises. The explanations, as was pointed out,
are of the highest importance to the pupil. The rest of the
class should be required to listen very attentively. This re-
quirement is a valuable stimulus, since it causes " comparison"
and converts every pupil into an adjutant teacher.

Criticisms. The pupil's work and explanation must often
be supplemented and criticised. The whole class must be

18

274 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

ready for such additions and criticisms. This exercise is of
the highest importance to the discipline and instruction of all.

The Teacher^s Part in Problems. It may be necessary to
offer suggestions to workers at the board, and to give direc-
tions to those who seem to be unable to proceed. The right
time for such help must be determined by the circumstances.
The teacher should not work problems for pupils, except as a
last resort, and even then it may be better to work another
problem that involves the same principles. Sometimes it is
well to let pupils try for several days to do a problem, the
teacher offering such hints as may seem in place. The teacher
should supplement and criticise the pupil's explanation of
problems, and add such information as may create interest in
arithmetic.

Attention to the General Truths of Arithmetic. The impres-
sion seems to prevail that the great thing in arithmetic is " to
work and explain problems." The whole truth is, that defi-
nitions, rules, principles, and axioms must be taught in con-
nection with problems. But these general truths of arithmetic
should be developed by induction or derived by deduction, as
the case may be, in accordance with the methods already de-
scribed, nor should any " text" statements of such truths ever
be committed unless they are understood. The pupil's own
statement, the immediate evidence of his own thinking, is to
be generally preferred. Much of this work is most conven-
iently connected with the assignment of lessons and reviews.

The Importance of Reviews in Arithmetic. There should, of
course, be formal reviews once a week or once in two weeks,
and monthly tests. Every truth ever learned, and every power
of computation ever acquired, should thus become permanent
possessions. In addition to these formal reviews and tests,
every recitation should consist partly of reviews and tests.
Such connections will not only stimulate thorough preparation
and private review, but serve as introductions to advances.

ARITHMETIC 275

In these reviews no help should be oiFered except in extreme
cases. The teacher needs excellent judgment in these, as in
all cases.

h. MENTAL ARITHMETIC.

The special features of mental arithmetic are most con-
veniently studied under the following heads : (1) The Nature
of Mental Arithmetic; (2) The Preparation of Lessons; (3)
The Recitation in Mental Arithmetic ; and (4) The Importance
of Mental Arithmetic.

The Nature of Mental Arithmetic. Mental arithmetic
is so named, not because written arithmetic is only a physical
process, but because in mental arithmetic the " number-opera-
tions" are performed without the aid of " figures." The real
difference between these two species of arithmetic is this, that
mental arithmetic is eminently analytical and inductive, while
written arithmetic lays more stress on economic abridgments
and deductions. These distinctions between mental and writ-
ten arithmetic may be understood by comparing the two modes
of solving a problem. Take, for example, this problem : If
f of a pound of butter costs 10 cents, what will f of a pound
cost?

The Solution in Ilental Arithmetic. If f of a pound of but-
ter costs 10 cents, 3- of a pound will cost ^ of 10 cents, or 5
cents, and f, or 1 pound, of butter will cost 5 times 5, or 25
cents. If 1 pound of butter costs 25 cents, | of a pound will
cost |- of 25 cents, or Q\ cents, and f of a pound will cost 3
times 6^ cents, or 18f cents. The analytic-synthetic steps of
the solution may be represented in the following drawing of
physical steps :

5

3"X

2

5

276 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

lb. cts. lb. cts.

The Solution in Written Arithmetic. If |- = 10, f = 25, and

lb. cts. cts.

I = 18|; or, I : f = 10 : answer; therefore, IH^^^ = ^ =

cts.

18f . Whether solved by fractions or proportion, the economic
abridgments and the dednctive reasoning are obvious. In
the solution by mental arithmetic the analysis of the problem
allows no abridgments, and is the first step in the induction
of rules.

The Preparation of Lessons in Mental Arithmetic. As
far as possible problems should be written out before the reci-
tation. At all events, every problem should be " thought out"
by analysis. The teacher and the pupils are equally subject
to this requirement. The lessons must, of course, be short
enough to make such preparation possible.

The Recitation in Mental Arithmetic. Various methods
have been proposed and used. Among the best ones are the
following :

The Common Method. The teacher reads a problem, assigns
it to some pupil, and requires him to rise, repeat, and solve it
without the help of a book or figures. It is necessary to insist
on precise and concise language, and correct pronunciation.
The method is economic, and, in the hands of a strong teacher,
will be effective.

The Chance Assignment Method. The number of the prob-
lem and the page of the book from which it may have been
taken are put on prepared slips of paper, and the pupils draw
papers by lot. The teacher reads a problem, announces the
number and page, and expects the pupil that drew the number
to rise and then repeat and solve the problem as in the common
method. This method is superior to the common method as
an exercise in attention.

The " Parts" Method. The teacher reads and assigns as in
the common method ; but when the first pupil has repeated

AEITHMETIC 277

the problem he may assign it to another pupil, who, after
partly solving it, may pass it to another, etc., until finally it
has been fully solved. The method is effective with younger
children as a means of holding their attention, and may be
used for variety in connection with other methods.

The Silent Method. The teacher reads a problem as in the
common method, the whole class tries to solve it, and when
time enough has been allowed, some one is requested to rise,
repeat, and solve, as in the common method. This method is
good for variety, and with younger pupils, but requires a great
deal of time.

Board Work in Mental Arithmetic. In connection with any
of the preceding methods, some pupils should be required to
work questions on the board. These questions should be as-
signed by means of slips of paper on which they have been
copied beforehand. Such board-work is a good opportunity
to introduce supplementary problems and reviews. Written
solutions in mental arithmetic develop accuracy in thought
and language. The language as well as the thought should
be criticised.

The Importance of Mental Arithmetic. The method
known as " mental" arithmetic has the following merits : (1)
It is a superior means of mental discipline, and (2) It is a
very desirable equipment for life.

The Discipline of Mental Arithmetic. (1) Inasmuch as men-
tal arithmetic is analytic and inductive, it is a fine training in
logic. (2) Since the problem must be repeated and solved
without a book, attention and memory are brought into ener-
getic exercise. (3) The analytic process of mental arithmetic
requires precise and concise language, and thus adds one most
desirable power to another. (4) The habit of analysis and
induction, as developed in mental arithmetic, is the true com-
plement of written arithmetic and the door to higher mathe-
matics.

278 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The Practical Value of Mental Arithmetic. In practical life
there are many times when the powers developed in mental
arithmetic are most serviceable. The man who is unable to
solve questions of practical arithmetic without pencil and
paper is often at a disadvantage.

An Eloquent Plea for Mental Arithmetic. " No words can
convey a full appreciation of the importance of mental arith-
metic. Only those who experienced the transition from the
old methods to the new can fully reahze the supreme value
of the study. Indeed, we believe that the method of mental
arithmetic is the greatest improvement in modern education ;
and the world owes a debt of gratitude to Warren Colburn,
its author, which it can never pay. Though there has been a
recent reaction in public sentiment against the subject, we be-
lieve that it is merely a wave of opinion and that it cannot be
permanent. Mental arithmetic is the great source of disci-
pline to the power of thought in our public schools. When
properly taught, it gives quickness of perception, keenness of
insight, toughness of mental fibre, and an intellectual power
and grasp that can be acquired by no other primary study. To
omit, therefore, a thorough course in mental arithmetic in the
common schools, is to deprive the pupils of one of the princi-
pal sources of thought power."

III. HIGHER ARITHMETIC.

The purpose in hand forbids an extended discussion of
higher arithmetic. A mere outline is all that our limits will
allow, and the outline is respectfully subjoined as a stimulus
to teachers.

The Ends in View in Higher Arithmetic. The ends in
view in higher arithmetic are as follows : (1) To supplement
the grammar school course ; (2) To study such remotest rela-
tions of arithmetic as can be better understood after a course
in algebra and geometry ; (3) To equip pupils with such

ARITHMETIC 279

special training in arithmetic as shall serve special needs of
life ; and (4) To develop such historical, scientific, philo-
sophic, and professional scholarship in arithmetic as may be
deemed important.

The Method of Instruction in Higher Arithmetic. The
development method, as employed in intermediate arithmetic,
is virtually the right method for higher arithmetic. The
higher phases of the subject, the special purposes in view, and
the "personal element" of the teacher, must determine the
necessary adjustments. The pedagogics of arithmetic is a
problem in psychology and economy, and must, of course, be
studied from those special stand-points.

The Subjects of Higher Arithmetic. The course of
higher arithmetic belongs to the high school, normal school,
business college, etc.

High School Arithmetic. The subject of arithmetic should
not be dropped in high schools. It should be retained as a
means of higher culture and special equipment. (1) From
the stand-point of culture, a regular text-book should be sup-
plemented with "test" problems. A course of mensuration
should be added after geometry, the special purpose being to
investigate the origin of rules and to acquire the power to
make original rules. (2) From the stand-point of equipment,
the high school should offer a course of commercial arithmetic
in connection with book-keeping. A thorough course in the
" Metric System" is desirable.

Normal School Arithmetic. The normal school should offer
a course in arithmetic equivalent to that just mapped out for
high schools. The special stand-point of normal schools re-
quires such a course for two reasons : (1) As a preparation for
the pedagogics of arithmetic ; and (2) As an equipment in
teaching arithmetic. The history and philosophy of arithme-
tic should be connected with the pedagogics of arithmetic.
Discovery of principles and deduction of methods should be

280 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

the great aim. Old methods should be subjected to criticism,
and original methods derived. A course in duodecimals is
desirable for teachers and specialists in arithmetic.

IV. THE IMPORTANCE OF ARITHMETIC

The importance of arithmetic is most conveniently consid-
ered under the following heads : (1) The Culture Value of
Arithmetic ; (2) The Instruction Value of Arithmetic ; (3)
The Practical Value of Arithmetic ; and (4) The Training of
Teachers of Arithmetic.

The Culture Value of Arithmetic. The detachment of
quantity from quality at once distinguishes arithmetic from
all other sciences. The measurement of quantities, and the
expression of such measurements by means of " numbers/' are
the great concerns of arithmetic. The measurement of quan-
tities makes analysis, synthesis, and comparison the necessary
processes of arithmetic. The possibilities and applications of
these processes must be ascertained by the development method
of study. Thus we see that arithmetic exercises the mind in
its most complex functions and within a sphere sui generis.
The tendency of such exercise is to develop the power of at-
tention in union with the syllogistic processes. But, although
the " intellect" and " will" are thus exercised somewhat unfeel-
ingly, the " heart" learns to rejoice in " truths." There is one
danger in the study of arithmetic. " The Committee of Fif-
teen" refers to this danger as follows : " The study of quan-
tity, if carried to excess, may warp the mind into a habit of
neglecting quality in its observation and reflection. As there
is no subsumption in the quantitative judgment, but only
equality or inequality (A is equal to or greater or less than B),
there is a tendency to atrophy in the faculty of concrete syllo-
gistic reasoning on the part of the person devoted exclusively
to mathematics."

The Instruction Value of Arithmetic. The knowledge

ARITHMETIC 281

of " numbers" is virtually equivalent to the intellectual meas-
urement of the universe ; it permits the imagination to ascend
and descend to the utmost limits of space, to estimate the forces
of nature, and to fathom the ends of eternity ; it, therefore,
emancipates the mind from its physical environments and lifts
it into the atmosphere of infinities. The lesson of immortal-
ity, as Pythagoras saw, is forced upon the studious mind in
arithmetic.

The Practical Value of Arithmetic. " The Committee
of Fifteen" has this to say about the practical value of arith-
metic : " It is the first tool of thought that man invents in the
work of emancipating himself from the thraldom to external
forces. For by the command of numbers he learns to divide
and conquer. He can proportion one force to another, and
concentrate against an obstacle precisely what is needed to
overcome it. Number also makes possible all the other sci-
ences of nature which depend on exact measurement and exact
record of phenomena as to the following items : order of suc-
cession, date, duration, locality, environment, extent of sphere
of influence, number of manifestations, number of cases of in-
termittence. All these can be defined accurately only by
means of number."

The Training of Teachers of Arithmetic. The respon-
sibility of teachers of arithmetic must be measured by the im-
portance of the study. If arithmetic is as important to pupils
as just explained, it is evident that teachers of arithmetic need
the best possible training. This training consists of two items :
(1) Training in arithmetic itself. This training is needed in
the art as well as in the science of teaching arithmetic. With-
out such proficiency the teacher must be a " blind leader of
the blind." (2) Training in the principles and methods of
teaching arithmetic. Since this topic was the subject of the
present chapter, it is hoped that the point in question may be
evident without further study.

282 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

CHAPTER IX.

GEOGRAPHY.

The first requisite in ideal instruction is a definite concep-
tion of the " subject" to be taughit. In this chapter on geog-
raphy we must therefi)re inquire into the nature of geography
before we try to solve the problem of teaching geography.

A. THE NATURE OP GEOGRAPHY.

The purpose of the chapter limits inquiry into the nature
of geography to four topics : (1 ) The " Subject" of Geography,
(2) The Psychology of Geography, (3) The Relation of Geog-
raphy to Other Branches, and (4) The History of Geography.

The Subject of Geography. " Geography," as commonly
defined, " is a description of the surface of the earth, and its
inhabitants." The subject of geography, according to this
definition, is (1) The earth's surface, and (2) The earth's in-
habitants. The earth, however, is the subject of geography
only in so far as it is the " home of man," and man only in so
far as he is the earth's inhabitant. But the earth, as man's
habitat, consists of land, water, atmosphere, plants, animals,
minerals, and conditions of relation ; and man, as the earth's
inhabitant, is subject to changes, makes changes in his habitat,
and employs it as means to ends. These phenomena, accord-
ingly, constitute the " subject" of geography. This definite
conception of geography is completely developed in Guyot's
treatise on " The Earth and Man."

The Psychology of Geography. The " subject" of geog-
raphy is capable not only of description, but also of explana-
tion. Geography is, therefore, really a science. Strictly de-
fined. Geography is the science of the earth as marl's habitat and

GEOGRAPHY 283

of man as the earth's inhabitant. As a science, geography
must first observe and then explain its phenomena.

Observation in Geography. Possibly there is no other science
in which observers are so likely to trespass upon the domain
of related sciences. The observer in geography should there-
fore keep in mind this absolute requirement, to observe the
earth only as man's habitat, and man only as the earth's in-
habitant. "Within these bounds, however, the student must
observe (with senses and judgment) every nook and corner of
space and time, and record his observations. When original
contribution to the science of geography is the end in view,
perceptive observation is imperative ; but, in the case of pupils
of geography, perceptive observation must for obvious reasons
be supplemented by conceptive observation.

Explanation in Geography. Just as cumulation is the first
step toward construction in building a house, so observation
is only the first stage in science. The cumulation of facts must
be supplemented by explanation. In other words, the facts of
geography must be referred to causes, laws, and classes. The
process of geographical explanation begins with an inductive
inquiry into the relations in question, and ends in deductive
classification of phenomena. (See Principles of Knowledge.)
Whether original contribution to the science of geography, or
acquaintance with the constructed science, be the end in view,
the explanatory process is essentially the same. The only dif-
ference between the geographer and the student of geography
is this, that presumably the former is able to supervise his
course, while the latter is a prot6g§ of supervision.

Species of Geography. The subject of geography, as we
have seen, lies partly in space and partly in time. The phe-
nomena in question are therefore (1) Physical Phenomena,
and (2) Historical Phenomena.

Physical Geography. The description and explanation of
the physical phenomena of geography constitute Physical

284 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OP TEACHING

Geography, or Physiography. Nature in the form of land,
water, air, plants, animals, minerals, and man, as well as the
planetary relation of the earth, is the subject of physical geog-
raphy. Thus it follows that special problems of geology,
meteorology, botany, zoology, anthropology, and astronomy,
when viewed from the stand-point of geography, are also
special problems of physical geography. Astronomical, or
Mathematical geography, is often treated as if it were a third
species of geography c5ordinate with physical and political
geography.

Political Geography. The description and explanation of
the changes which man as the earth's inhabitant makes in his
habitat, and of the uses to which he puts his habitat, constitute
Historical, or Political Geography. Accordingly, political
geography treats of man's divisions of territory, his modes of
life, civilization, and activity, and the character of the govern-
ments which he establishes. Thus we see that certam prob-
lems of history, when viewed from the stand-point of geog-
raphy, become special problems of political geography.

The Relation of Geography to Other Branches. Inas-
much as the earth is the subject of geography only in so far
as it is man's habitat, and man only in so far as he is the
earth's inhabitant, the relation of geography to other branches
whose subject in some aspect or other is also the earth or man
must be obvious. The earth, for example, is the subject of
chemistry, but only in so far as it consists of " elements in
composition." So, too, the earth is the subject of geology,
botany, zoology, mineralogy, etc., but only in so far as it can
be viewed from the special stand-points of these sciences. In
the same way, man is the subject of various sciences, such as
physiology, psychology, etc., but only in so far as he can be
viewed from the special stand-points of these sciences. Thus
it follows that while geography and many other sciences appar-
ently have the same subject, they really have only certain as-

GEOGRAPHY 285

pects of this subject for their special domains. Two inferences
are necessary : (1) Geography is an encyclopsedic introduction
to the various sciences whose subjects are aspects of the earth
and man ; and (2) A knowledge of the sciences related to geog-
raphy is requisite to a complete mastery of geography. (See
the Tenth Principle of Knowledge.)

The History of Geography. For the first records of
geography, we must look to the " nest places" of civilization,
i.e., to the fertile valleys and peninsulas about the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. " Here the sailor,
the traveller, the soldier, brought together their accounts of
foreign lands, people, winds, ocean currents, and apparent
motions of the heavenly bodies." The ancient Egyptians and
Phoenicians knew only the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.
The Greek Homer (about 900 B.C.) knew Asia Minor, Phoe-
nicia, and Egypt, but apparently was ignorant of Mesopo-
tamia. "Herodotus (450 B.C.) had travelled through Asia
Minor, Phoenicia, Lower Egypt, and Mesopotamia, which,
with his own country, he has accurately described ; but he
knew very little of the discoveries to the westward, and has
not even mentioned Rome." Alexander's marches laid open
the way to India. "Eratosthenes (276-194 B.C.) began at
Alexandria to explore the heavens for the key to mathemati-
cal geography. He also studied the relation of irregular coast-
lines to continental areas, together with the effects of great
natural features upon climate, and used parallels and meri-
dians in his maps to locate important places." The Punic
Wars and the campaigns of Julias Csesar made known many
countries. The greatest geographer of ancient times was Clau-
dius Ptolemy (about 1 50 a.d.). If the claims be correct, New-
foundland, Nova Scotia, and Martha's Vineyard were dis-
covered about 1000 A.D. Then came Columbus, Vasco de
Gama, and Magellan, completely overturning the Ptolemaic
system, and forcing the scientific world to adopt the theory

286 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

of a solar system. "About 1556 a Flemish mathematician
named Mercator constructed the first map of the whole world
upon the projection which bears his name." Other projec-
tions, known as conic, polyconic, and globular, came later.
Humboldt "was the first to teach geographers to indicate
climate by means of isotherms ; to divide the world into nat-
ural regions, basing the divisions upon natural features, for
showing the distribution of life ; to group the plants into a
few great families, and refer them to climatic conditions."
The great Hitter made geography " The Science of the Earth
in Relation to Nature and the History of Man." He studied
" the trends of the great mountain systems, the comparative
areas of highlands and lowlands, the proportions of continen-
tal surfaces to coast-lines, the disposition of land and water
areas, together with their influence upon climate, the distribu-
tion of life, and the intellectual development of the races."
Arnold Guyot, a disciple of Hitter, has done much for geog-
raphy in America. The earliest American text-books on geog-
raphy were little more than catalogues of places, etc. By and
by description and explanation were added. Among the most
popular geographies of our times are Warren's, Butler's, Mit-
chell's, Appleton's, Frye's, and Redway and Hinman's. For
a complete view of the history of geography, the reader is re-
ferred to Professor Frye's little book " The Child and Nature,"
from which most of the foregoing details are quoted.

B. INSTRUCTION IN GEOG-RAPHY.

Three great questions constitute the problem of teaching
geography : (1) In what order and to what extent are the
subjects of geography to be taught ? (2) What method of in-
struction is appropriate to each course ? and (3) How impor-
tant is the study of geography to education ? These questions
will be discussed under the following heads : (1) The Neces-
sary Courses in Geography, (2) The Elementary Course in Ge-

GEOGRAPHY 287

ography, (3) The Intermediate Course in Geography, (4) The
Higher Course in Geography, and (5) The Importance of Geog-
raphy.

I. THE NECESSARY COURSES IN GEOGRAPHY.

The subjects of geography should be taken up in the order
of their dependence and complexity. (See Principles of
Knowledge.) Progress from subject to subject, and phase to
phase, should be adapted to the stages of the pupil's possibil-
ity, (See the First Principle of Instruction.)

Complexity in the Evolution of Geography. The order
of dependence (see Principles of Knowledge) in the evolution
of any subject is absolute. It must accordingly be the task of
authors and teachers to discover and follow this order in their
books and instruction. It also obviously devolves on authors
and teachers to ascertain the stages of complexity in the evolu-
tion of a subject, and to proceed from the simple to the com-
plex in teaching. (See the Third and Fourth Principles of
Knowledge.) In geography, as in all studies, each subject
has three distinct stages of complexity, (1) The stage of imme-
diate relations, (2) The stage of remoter relations, and (3) The
stage of remotest relations.

The Stage of Immediate Relations. The concrete phase of a
subject is readily comprehended when the parts and qualities
of that which is in question are few and their dependence ob-
vious to the senses. The concrete phase of " slope and drain-
age," for example, is readily understood even by a child when
the slope and drainage have no obscure parts. In such cases
even the law can be taught to a child.

The Stage of Remoter Relations. Abstract phases of a sub-
ject are more difficult to comprehend, especially if the qualities
of that which is in question are numerous and the relations can
be illustrated only imperfectly. This is the case in the study
of winds, tides, currents, coast-lines, commerce, government,
etc. Even when we resort to illustrations, such as can be

288 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

given by means of relief globes, charts, etc., these subjects are
too complex for children.

The Stage of Remotest Relations. Abstract relations of a
subject are very difficult to understand when the parts and
qualities of that which is in question enter into complex com-
position. It is a most difficult problem, for example, to study
" the trends of the great mountain systems, the comparative
areas of highlands and lowlands, the proportions of continen-
tal surfaces to coast-lines, the disposition of land and water
areas, together with their influence upon climate, the distribu-
tion of life, and the intellectual development of the races."

The Stages of the Pupil's Possibility. The pupil's pos-
sibility is approximately measured by his capacity and oppor-
tunity (see the Fourth General Principle of Education), but
there are general stages of possibility for every pupil, which
determine what phase of a subject he should study. (See the
Second, Third, and Eighth Principles of Instruction.) Stated
in logical order, these stages are those of (1) Dependence, (2)
Transition, and (3) Independence.

The Stage of the PwpiVs Dependence. So long as the pupil
needs supervision in the formation of his concepts and conclu-
sions, he is a proteg6 in geography, and must be assisted by
concrete guidance, as in object lessons.

The Stage of the Pupil's Transition. As soon as the pupil
needs supervision only in case of complexities, or for reasons
of economy, he is becoming independent, and must be required
to shift for himself. Books, maps, etc., must now become reg-
ular means of supplementing his observations and reflections.

The Stage of the Pupil's Independence. When stimulus,
rather than supervision, is all that the pupil needs, he must
be thrown almost altogether upon his own resources. Advanced
texts, atlases, cyclopaedias, etc., must now become regular
meaus, and the recitation is hardly more than a spur to
original investigation.

GEOGRAPHY 289

The Necessary Courses in Geography. Thus it follows
that the necessary courses in geography, as in other branches,
are three : (1) The concrete course, in which the relations of
the subjects are obvious, and much supervision necessary.
This course is termed the Elementary course. (2) The course
in which the relations of the subjects are less obvious, and
supervision is less direct. This course is termed the Interme-
diate course. (3) The course in which the relations are com-
plex and abstract, and the pupil has supervisory power. This
course is termed the Higher course.

II. THE ELEMENTARY COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY.

The topics which at this point deserve attention are the fol-
lowing : (1) The ends in view, (2) The lesson-method, (3) The
subjects of elementary geography, and (4) Sample lessons.

The Ends in View in Elementary Geography. There
are four ends in view in ideal instruction, (1) The develop-
ment of concepts, (2) The discovery of facts, (3) Inductions,
and (4) Deductions.

The Development of Concepts. Inasmuch as the subject of
geography lies partly in space and partly in time, the first task
in teaching geography is to develop in the pupil's mind such
concepts of extension as position, direction, distance, hour,
month, year, etc., and their signs (representation) on maps
globes, in books, etc. The neglect to perform this task always
cripples the child's progress.

The Discovery of Facts. The ultimate object of science is
the discovery of general truths, or principles ; but this discov-
ery is either unlikely or impossible when particular truths, or
facts, have not been discovered by the learner. (See the Fifth
Principle of Knowledge.) "When, therefore, such general
truths as definitions and laws are to be thought by the pupil,
he should first think concrete cases.

Inductions. As soon as the pupil has discovered facts, he

19

290 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

is ready to think principles. Indeed, it must be obvious to
any one who will think about it, that pupils are not only
ready, but should be required to think the general (not necessa-
rily the universal) as soon as they have thought the particular.
When, for example, the pupil has discovered that a mountain
is very high land, he should be led to think the definition, or
general truth, of mountains ; or, when he has discovered that
a stream of water flows down hill, he should be led to think
that all streams tend to flow down hill. The teacher that
neglects such inductions really neglects to teach.

Beduetions. Induction makes it possible for the mind to
classify its acquisitions, and to know more individuals of a
genus than one has ever studied. Such insight into genera
saves labor and confusion in subsequent thought, inasmuch as
new individuals can be readily classified by means of obvious
specific properties. When, for example, the pupil has learned
the principle that all the rivers of some particular slope flow
into one bed, he needs to know only one thing about any new
river, namely, that it belongs to that slope, to classify it cor-
rectly in other respects also. This ability to classify by de-
duction is the high prerogative of humanity, and the ultimate
object of ideal instruction. When this power has been devel-
oped, science becomes art, and the learner, provided the power
has also become habit, is "of age." (See Third General
Principle of Education.)

The Lesson-Method, of Elementary Geography. The
tasks of elementary geography (see the preceding paragraph)
can be accomplished only by requiring learners to study sub-
jects with all the possible functions of the mind in logical suc-
cession. (See the Tenth Principle of Instruction.) This re-
quirement is virtually fulfilled in what are conveniently termed
Inductive- deductive Lessons. The conspicuous steps of an in-
ductive-deductive lesson are as follows : (1) Perception, (2)
Conception, (3) Representation, and (4) Explanation.

GEOGRAPHY 291

Perception. Inasmuch as the " subject" of geography lies
partly in space and partly in time, the concrete quality of
which in both cases is extension, perception is the natural basis
of direct comparisons in geography. Apart from actual per-
ception, these comparisons are likely to resemble " beating the
air."

Conception. In the course of several direct comparisons,
the mind, by " selecting agreements" (abstraction) and think-
ing them into unity (generalization), arrives at concepts, or
general ideas. This complex process in its entirety is termed
Conception. It implies memory as the means in holding fast
experiences and names ; and, in the form of imagination, it
enlarges the mental horizon in geography, thus completing the
mind's desired survey of space. The term definition denotes
two things in this connection, (1) The process of conception
itself, and (2) The description of a concept in words. These
two things should be combined as much as possible in the
order just given.

Representation. Since the " subject" of geography lies ex-
tended in space and time, these extensions can be physically
represented. The most realistic representation of geographical
knowledge are sand-moulding and clay-modelling, or relief
globes ; the most convenient, although the most abstract form
of representation, are drawings termed Maps and Globes. The
immediate purpose of representation in geography is (1) To
stimulate observation, and (2) To supervise thought. The
permanent function of maps and globes is (1) To record geo-
graphical observations, and (2) To serve, though imperfectly,
as a substitute for observation of the " subject" of geography.
At first only the simplest exercises should be required of
pupils. These exercises should, however, be introduced as
soon as sound sense dictates, and difficulties should be mastered
as fast as judgment and constructive skill can be developed.
Formal map-drills should follow map-making.

292 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Explanation. The pupil should be required to think causes,
laws, and classes, so far as he is able, in connection with per-
ception, conception, and representation in geography. Causes,
laws, and classes can often be understood by very young
pupils, if the teacher's illustrations and questions are skilful.
Nevertheless, the pupil should not be pushed beyond his " in-
terest" in these matters. Indeed, description (perception, con-
ception, representation) should predominate very much over
explanation in elementary geography. Deductive exercises
should be added in order to bring geographical knowledge
into real life.

a. THE SUBJECTS OF ELEMENT A EY GEOGEAPHY.

Elementary geography may begin the last part of the second
or the first part of the third school year, and should cover
about three years. The progress from subject to subject in
elementary geography should at first be synthetic (starting at
home), and, in due time, it should be analytic. (See the Sec-
ond and Fifth Principles of Instruction.) The following out-
line suggests the work to be done, and the order in which to
develop the subjects. The pupil should be required to study
a simple book, such as Frye's " Primary Geography/' the
third year.

Position. Develop the concepts above, below, before, behind,
right, left, etc. Place objects into the relations denoted by
these terms, require the pupils to place objects into these rela-
tions, and have them locate objects in such relations.

Direction. Develop the concepts East, West, North, South,
etc. Require some pupil standing in front of the class to point
out and face the East, West, etc. Have the pupils locate ob-
jects, places, etc., in the East, West, etc. Place the pupils at
various points in the room, and lead them to see the directions
(1) from some central point (absolute direction), and (2) from
each other (relative direction).

GEOGRAPHY 293

Distance. Develop all the concepts of linear measure, such
as length, breadth, height, depth, etc. Lead them to know
inches, foot, yard, rod, etc., by actual measurements. Require
them to divide lines, strings, etc., into halves, thirds, etc.
Have them estimate the length, breadth, height, etc., of the
floor, blackboard, cellars, windows, etc., and then test the
estimates by actual measurements.

Representation. Having acquired the ideas of position,
direction, and distance, the pupil is ready to make maps of the
table, floor, yard, field, etc., denoting positions, directions, and
distances, by means of dots, lines, colors, etc. (See the First
and Third Principles of Knowledge.) Lead the pupils to see
that a line an inch long, for example, may represent an edge
a foot, yard, or rod long. Begin these lessons by showing the
children how to map the table-top on the black-board. Re-
quire them to map the table, floor, etc., on slates, board, etc.,
using the adopted " scale of measurement."

Surface. (1) Lead the pupils to distinguish even, uneven,
level, and sloping surfaces. Require them to find such surfaces
in the vicinity of the school-house and their homes. (2) Lead
the pupils to distinguish highlands and lowlands. Develop in
succession the concepts of the various species of high land,
such as hill, mountain, o-ange, peak, etc. Require the children
to describe a hill, mountain, etc., introducing such terms as
base, slope, summit, etc. In the same way develop the con-
cepts of the various species of low land, such as meadow, val-
ley, prairie, etc. If possible, imitate these forms in sand and
clay. Use illustrative pictures. Require descriptions in which
memory, imagination, and judgment are necessary. Identify
these forms on maps, globes, etc. Lead the pupil to reflect on
these forms.

Water. Lead the pupil to distinguish streams from still
bodies of water. Develop In succession the concepts of the
various species of streams, such as creek, brook, river, etc., to-

294 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OP TEACHING

gether with their sources, banks, bed, current, etc. In the
same way develop in succession such concepts as pond (together
with bay, strait), lake, sea, ocean, etc., together with their shores,
bed, inlets, outlets, uses, etc. When possible, imitate these
forms in clay and by means of the " geographical box." Use
illustrative pictures. Give and require descriptions in which
memory, imagination, and judgment are necessary. Identify
all these forms on globes, maps, etc. Lead the pupil to reflect
on such questions as (1) What kind of fishes live in the creek
which you crossed this morning ? (2) What causes the cur-
rent in a stream ? (3) Why do some streams flow faster than
others ? (4) Why is it hard for a fish to swim " up stream" ?
(5) What are rapids ? (6) Why is sea- water unfit for drink-
ing?

Land and Water. Teach other lessons on land and water
in the way just indicated.

Climate. Develop the concepts of temperature, moisture,
wind, etc. Lead them to distinguish climates as warm, cold,
moderate, moist, dry, etc., and acquaint them with examples.
Teach them to reflect on the causes of various climates, and
lead them to see how climate affects health, plants, animals,
products, habits, etc.

Soil. Require the pupils to handle sand, shale, clay, loam,
etc. Help them to sow seeds and plant trees into the various
kinds of soil, and thus lead them to distinguish soil as fetiile,
barren, etc. Require them to locate the various soils, and to
reflect on their causes, such as slope, etc. Teach them some
effects of soils on plants, trees, etc.

Productions. Having developed the conditioning concepts
of climate and soil, lead the children to discover the simpler
concepts, facts, and relations of the various productions, such
as flowers, grasses, grains, vegetables, etc. The following de-
tails will suggest the work that can be done, and serve as a
rough outline to be filled up as the teacher sees possible and

GEOGEAPHY 295

appropriate. (1) Require the pupils to name, distinguish, and
locate the common grasses, grains, vegetables, fruits, trees,
etc., and to study their habits, peculiarities, and uses. Tell
them about the great prairies of the West, the rice-fields of
the South, the potato of Ireland, the coffee of Brazil, the
oranges of Florida, the trees of California, etc. (2) Require
the pupils to name, distinguish, describe, and locate the com-
mon species of insects, birds, fishes, reptiles, and other ani-
mals. Familiarize them with the characteristic habits and
uses of these animals. Give lessons on bees, spiders, butter-
flies, fireflies, grasshoppers, potato bugs, plant lice, birds' nests,
migration of birds, food of birds, habits of fowls, fishes, frogs,
snakes, monkeys, etc. Tell the children about interesting
animals of other lands.

People. Familiarize the pupils with the industries of
their community and neighboring localities. Require them
to name these industries, the workers, their characteristic tools,
products, etc. Lead the children to observe the buildings,
dress, and manners of people, and require descriptions in
which memory, imagination, judgment, etc., are necessary.

Races. Find opportunities to teach the races of man, de-
scribing them, studying their characteristics. Give lessons on
the Indians, Negroes, Esquimaux, etc.

At this time, say the beginning of the third year, the pupil
should be required to study a simple book, and greater stress
should be laid on globes and maps, and the preceding lessons
should be reviewed in connection with the following new sub-
jects.

The Form of the Earth. Calling the pupil's attention to
the apparent form of the earth (see the Second Principle of
Instruction), lead him to think of it as round like a ball or an
orange, etc. Develop such proofs as (1) People have travelled
around the earth, (2) The horizon line is a circle, (3) The top

296 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

of an incoming ship is first seen, (4) Other proofs. (See Red-
way's " Manual of Geography.") Require pupils to think of
such questions as the following : (1) Why do the ships that
sail on the under side of the earth not fall off? (2) How does
the inside of the earth look ?

Distribution of Land and Water. Using relief globes,
other globes, and maps, lead the children to observe (1) The
surface location of land and water, (2) The contour of the
continents, (3) The primary and secondary continental reliefs,
(4) The drainage, (5) The relative proportion of land and
water.

Motions of the Earth. (1) Develop the concepts of time,
such as day, hour, minute, week, month, year, as in the exer-
cises of arithmetic. Lead the children to see the use of
watches and clocks. Tell them about sun-dials, etc. (2) By
means of a candle and globe, or black ball with a knitting
needle as the axis, teach the rotation of the earth on its axis,
and its effect, i.e., day and night. In the same way, teach the
phenomena of the moon, and the lunar month. (3) With the
same means, taking care to incline the axis properly, teach the
revolution of the earth around the sun, the orbit of the earth,
the effect of the earth's revolution and the inclination of its
axis, i.e., the seasons, polar days and nights, the location and
names of the principal circles, the zones, together with their
peculiarities of climate, products, people, etc. (4) After the
above lessons, and somewhat in connection with them, teach
the equator, latitude, longitude, parallels, meridians, degrees
of longitude, etc. Require the pupils to find the latitude
and longitude of certain places, to locate places whose lati-
tude and longitude are given, to reckon out differences of
time, etc.

Continents. Give lessons in the order of the book used,
on continents, studying such subjects as position, contour, re-
lief, drainage, climate, productions, etc.

GEOGEAPHY 297

Countries and Divisions. After such a general view of
the continents, give lessons on the various countries, states,
etc., studying position, contour, relief, drainage, soil, climate,
products, people, political divisions, etc.

Illustrative Lessons. In the elementary tasks of the first
two years, the pupils are not supposed to " prepare lessons,"
as in later years. They should, however, be directed to make
such observations as may serve the purposes in hand. They
may also be invited to gather such objects, plants, etc., as can
be secured by them. This holds true especially in " Nature"
studies and the " Industries." As a rule it will devolve on
the teacher himself to gather the materials for these elementary
lessons. (See the Third and Fourth General Principles of Ed-
ucation.) Some of these lessons, as the teacher can judge for
himself, ought to be given " out of school hours" and " out of
sight of school-houses." The following sample lessons are
subjoined as suggestions, and are designed to illustrate the
inductive-deductive lesson method to which reference has
been made. These illustrations, however, are not meant to
be " grooves" for teachers, but only as " sign-posts" to point
out the way. The same lesson-method, supplemented, as
already indicated, by the study of a simple book, is to be con-
tinued the third year.

A Lesson on Position. Teacher (holding a book). Where
is the book, Robert? Robert. It is above your head. T.
Where is it now, Alice? Alice. It is under your arm. T.
Where is it now, Peter? Peter. It is in my left hand. T.
And now ? P. In Mary's right hand. T. Boys, let your left
hand hang down. T. You may all put your right hand upon
your head ; under your left hand ; over it. T. Who sits to
your right, James ? James. Mary Jones. T. You may all
step forward ; backward ; to your right ; to your left.

A Lesson on Direction. Teacher. Mary, please stand in

298 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

front of the class. Point to the place where the sun rises.
Turn your face in that direction. The place where the sun
rises is called the East Where does the sun rise, Mary ? Mary.
The sun rises in the East. T. The class may face the East.
T. Point to where the sun sets, Mary. That place is called
the West. Where does the sun set, James ? James. In the
West. T. Now, Mary, point to the East with your right
hand and to the West with your left hand. If you should
now walk forward, you would walk toward the North. T.
John, please point to the North. T. If Mary should walk
backward, she would walk toward the South. T. Ellen,
please face the South. T. The class may rise. Face the
East; the West; the North; the South. T. At which wall
do I point, Jacob ? Jacob. At the North wall. At the East
wall. T. Mabel, please walk West, East, North, South. T.
James, stand against the North wall half way from each end.
Ellen, stand against the South wall, etc. Peter, stand against
the East wall, etc. Mabel, stand against the West wall, etc.
T. John, what is the direction from James to Ellen ; from
Ellen to James ; from Peter to James ; from Mabel to Peter,
etc.

A Lesson on Map-Making-. Teacher. Over what do I
move my hand, James ? James. Over the table. T. Please
run your finger along the North edge of the table-top. T. I
will now draw a line on the black-board for the North edge
of the table-top. What have I done, James ? T. Show the
class the East edge of the table-top, John. T. What does the
line that I have just drawn represent, Mary ? Mary. It rep-
resents the East edge. T. This line? P. The West edge.
T. This line ? P. The South edge. T. (placing an inkstand
on the table-top). Where is the inkstand, Thomas ? Thomas.
It is near the East edge of the table. T. How can this be
represented on the board, Mabel? Mabel. By means of a
picture. T. Yes, Mabel, or by means of a mark like this

GEOGRAPHY 299

(making a dot or cross). T. Miriam, take this foot-rule, and
find out how long this desk is. Miriam. It is four feet long.
T. I will draw a line to represent it (drawing a line one foot
long). Please measure this line. Miriam. It is one foot long.
T. Please measure the width of this desk, Allen. Allen. It
is two feet wide. T. How long shall I draw a line to repre-
sent the width of the desk, Thomas ? Thomas. I can't tell.
T. Who can tell ? John. You drew a line one foot long for
the four feet ; therefore, I think the line should be half as long
for two feet. T. That is a good answer. Thomas, please
draw the line for me. Now complete the picture, and make
marks to show where the pencil and the book are lying.
Children, these drawings which we have made are called
maps. Mollie, what is a map? Tell what you think a map
is, James. "When you take your seats, try to make a map
of your desk-top on your slate. To-morrow you may measure
the floor and draw it,

A Lesson on Land Forms. Teacher (moving the edge of
the ruler across the table-top). Is this surface even or uneven,
Morris ? Morris. It is even. T. (pointing to the folds of a
coat). What can you say about this surface, Ruth ? Ruth. It
is not even. T. Yes, or wneven. T. Is the floor even or un-
even ? Class. It is even. T. The school-yard ? Martha. It
is not as even as the floor. Thomas. I watched the cows in
a very uneven field last Summer. T. Was the field hilly,
Thomas? Thomas. Yes, sir. T. What do you mean?
Thomas. Some places in the field were higher than the others.
T. Such high places, Thomas, are called hills. Emma, what
is a hill. Emma. I think a hill is high land. T. What do
you think, Peter? T. Do you see that liigh hill over toward
the North ? Class. Yes, sir. Mary. I see a very, very high
hill way off. It is covered with trees. Papa took us up that
high hill last summer to pick berries. There were big stones
there too. I think James called them rochs. And I saw a

300 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

rabbit run ! T. Well done, Mary. Such very high hills are
called mountains. T. James, what is a mountain? James.
A mountain is a very high hill. T. Yes, or a high elevation
of land (moving his hand to show). T. When you went down
to the creek yesterday, did you find the creek on a hill, John ?
John. No, sir ; but I saw a hill to my right and another to
my left. T. What shall we call a low land between two hills
or mountains, Florence ? Florence. I think mamma calls it a
valley. T. That is the right name. What then is a valley ?
Florence. A valley is the low land between hills or mountains.
T. Who can describe some valley that you have seen ? Frank.
I think I can, Mr. Porter. T. Try it, Frank. T. Who can
tell what use can be made of valleys? T. To-morrow we
will make little hills and valleys with sand. Perhaps you
will also be ready to make a map of some valley that you
have seen.

A Lesson on Soil. Having collected specimens of soil,
the teacher requires the pupils to handle and observe the speci-
mens. T. Please tell us something about this sand, Flor-
ence ? Florence. This sand is like sugar ; it is not quite as
white. These little pieces (the teacher says "grains") have
little corners that hurt when they get into your shoe. T.
Herbert, this earth that I have in my hand is called clay.
Please tell us something about it. Have you ever tried to
make " mud-pies" ? T. Katie, press this lump of clay into
the shape of a ball. Thomas, press this lump into the shape
of a little tea-cup. T. Why does your mother not plant flowers
in sand or clay ? Tillie. I know ; they would not grow. T.
That is right ; sand and clay are not good soil, that is, earth,
in which to sow seeds, etc. Good soil is c&lled fertile soil, and
poor soil is called barren soil. Nellie, where does your mother
plant peas ? Nellie. She plants them in the garden. T. Why ?
Nellie. I think it must be because the garden earth is good —
I mean, fertile — soil. T. Children, look at this seed. I will

GEOGRAPHY 301

sow some of it in this box and some in this one. Now, please
observe every day what will happen, write down whatever you
see, and then I will ask you to tell me all that you can learn
about these things.

A Lesson on Plants. Teacher. Please examine these plants
(handing specimens to the members of the class). Who knows
the name of his plant ? Frank. Mine is a potato plant. Emma.
Mine is a turnip. T. Who knows the name of Mary's plant ?
(There is no reply.) It is a parsnip. I will write the name.
How can you tell these plants apart from each other, George ?
(The answers are to be supplied, and should include form,
color, size, weight, etc.) T. Where do these plants grow?
T. For what are they good ? T. Tell what you know about
potatoes, Frank. T. Tell what you, etc., know. T. How
does the farmer take potatoes to market? T. How does
mother prepare turnips for the table, Jane? T: Which do
you like better, Morris ? Why ? T. When do farmers plant
potatoes? How? Why?

A Lesson on the Form of the Earth. Teacher (standing
with the class on the school grounds). Does the earth as far
around as you can see (giving directions) look as flat as a floor ?
(The answers are to be supplied by the student- teacher.) T.
Does it look like this (running his finger around the edge of a
nickel)? T. (holding up a ball or an orange). The earth
may seem to you to be somewhat flat and round like this
nickel, but it really is round, almost like this ball. If the
earth is round like this ball, what can I do if 1 start here
(pointing to some marked spot)? Minnie. You can go all
around the ball and come back to the place where you started.
T. That is just what has been done (telling and illustrating
fully). T. To-morrow we will study some other proofs that
the earth is round. You may now go to your seats and write
what we have learned about the shape of the earth. I will ask
you to read your stories when we recite to-morrow.

302 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

A Lesson on the Seasons. Teacher. In what time of the
year do the cherry-trees blossom, Jennie ? Jennie. In Spring.
(This answer is probable.) T. When do the farmers make
hay, Ralph ? Ralph. In Summer. (Develop the concepts of
Autumn and Winter by similar questions, and elicit descrip-
tions.) T. These four times of the year are called seasons.
How many seasons has a year, class ? Class. Four seasons.
T. Name them, Howard. T. What is meant by the name
season, Sallie? Sallie. The different times of the year are
called seasons. T. How do the four seasons of the year dif-
fer from each other, Mabel ? T. What causes day and night,
Howard? (A lesson on day and night is presupposed.)
Howard. The earth revolves on its axis, and the side toward
the sun is day, but the side away from it is called night. T.
The seasons are caused somewhat in the same way. Let me
show you (carrying a globe around the light of a candle, taking
care to incline the axis properly, etc.). This is the Summer
side (stopping at the right point). Tell me what you see,
Mabel. Mabel. I see that the light falls right against this
spot (pointing it out). It is Pennsylvania. T. What, then,
is the season in Pennsylvania when the sun shines upon
it that way? Ralph. It is Summer. (Develop the other
seasons in the same way, asking questions to bring out the
points. Do not introduce too many difficulties at once. Go
slowly.)

Lessons on the other topics indicated in the catalogue of
subjects should be given in the same way. It should be re-
membered that the preceding sample lessons are only sug-
gestions. The individual teacher must ever strive to be
himself as much as possible, and to adapt himself to his con-
crete situations. The lessons on mathematical or astronom-
ical geography should not be taken up too soon, and when
taken up they should be carefully planned beforehand by the
teacher.

GEOGRAPHY 303

III. THE INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY.

The topics that deserve attention in this section are as fol-
lows : (1) The Ends in View in Intermediate Geography ; (2)
The Lesson-Method ; (3) The Subjects ; (4) The Preparation
of Lessons ; and (5) The Eecitation.

The Ends in View in Intermediate Geography. There
are four ends in view in intermediate geography lessons : (1)
The Enlargement of Concepts; (2) The Multiplication of
Facts ; (3) Inductions ; and (4) Deductions.

The Enlargement of Concepts. The cumulative process in
the generalizations of the elementary lessons in geography is in-
complete for several reasons : (1) The stages of the pupil's de-
velopment are not equal to the tasks of complex generaliza-
tion; and (2) The mass of experiences is insufficient for
complete generalization. All the elementary concepts of geog-
raphy should therefore be developed as fully as possible in the
intermediate course. Such a concept as drainage, for example,
should now be enlarged by comparing a greater number of
cases and cases that are complex. (See the First and Third
Principles of Instruction.)

The Multiplication of Facts in Intermediate Geography . It
is evidently impossible for a child to learn many complex facts
of geography in three or four years. But, in order to think
the greater truths of geography, there are two requisites : (1)
The mind must compare a large number of facts ; and (2) The
facts to be compared must have matured concepts for subjects
and predicates. If, therefore, the pupil is not required to com-
pare many facts, the definitions and principles at which he ar-
rives will be weakly supported, and if he is not required to
compare complex facts, the generalizations which he attempts
will be inferior conquests. In accordance with this require-
ment pupils should observe many individuals before they frame
a final definition of a continent, etc., and to compare complex

304 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

individuals before they attempt to think complex systems of
rivers, winds, currents, etc. (See the Second and Tenth Prin-
ciples of Instruction.)

The Inductions of Intermediate Geography. As suggested
in the preceding paragraph, the inductions of intermediate ge-
ography should extend to such remote relations as will tend
to emancipate the pupil. (See the Eighth Principle of Instruc-
tion.) In accordance with this requirement, intermediate pupils
learn the principles of continental drainage as well as those of
neighborhood drainage, the principles of continental distribu-
tion of life as well as those of limited areas, etc.

The Deductions of Intermediate Geography. Inasmuch as
the first requisite in valid deduction is a legitimate major pre-
mise, the deductions of intermediate geography, as in all grades,
must begin where induction ends. Within this limitation, how-
ever, deduction should follow every induction. Obedience to
this requirement will not only be corrective, but the habit will
in time emancipate the learner from the common distraction of
particulars, and place him in the centre of his geographical
survey. This is the supreme end in science. (See the Eighth
Principle of Instruction.)

The Lesson-Method of Intermediate Geography. In-
asmuch as the tasks to be performed are the same, except that
they are more complex, the inductive- deductive plan already
outlined and illustrated in elementary geography is to be con-
tinued in connection with such modifications as the nature of
the subjects may demand. (See the Fifth Principle of Instruc-
tion.) The text-book, as well as the supplementary work,
should be a " balance" of description and explanation. (See
the First Principle of Instruction.) More time should be de-
voted to map-drawing, and the " constructive" method should
be combined with the " imitative" method. (See the Sixth and
Seventh Principles of Instruction.)

Intermediate Map-Drawing. (1) The importance of map-

GEOGRAPHY 305

drawing as a stimulus to close observation is obvious. It fol-
lows, (a) that geographical knowledge will be more perfect,
and (6) that memories will be more persistent. (See the Laws
of Mental Activity.) (2) The intermediate pupil should be
required to represent as truly as possible the real features and
proportions of the surfaces to be drawn. Inasmuch as this
task necessitates a powerful effort of imagination, there will be
two results, (a) Interest in geography will be promoted, and
(6) The phenomena represented will be better understood. (3)
Two species of map-drawing are to be recommended. First,
the pupil should be required to observe the features to be rep-
resented, and then to draw from memory. Second, the pupil
should be required to measure the proportions to be repre-
sented, and then to draw by " scale." The latter exercise is
the proper supplement of the former from the stand-point of
culture ; it also prepares the pupil to interpret and appreciate
maps and globes. All cumbersome systems of "triangulation,"
etc., are to be avoided for obvious reasons. The pupil that is
mature enough for constructive drawing should be required to
draw the Mercator projections (see page 286), and then, since
they are more accurate, the conic and spherical projections.
These projections of parallels and meridians are simpler in
the end, and decidedly more reasonable. (4) The subjects of
intermediate map-drawing are somewhat as follows : (a) The
continents, beginning with the simplest one ; (6) The pupil's
county and State ; (c) The New England group ; (<^) The
Middle States group ; (e) The Southern States group ; (/) The
States in the order in which the book takes them up ; (g) Other
countries. (5) The drawings should, of course, represent at
first principally the contour, relief, and drainage, but later on,
as fast as the pupil becomes acquainted with the surface which
he has represented, he should be required to represent also the
distribution of plants, animals, races, manufactures, etc. ; the
location of cities ; the routes of commerce ; the climatic belts,

20

306 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

etc. Studied in this way, geography will become very realistic
and practical. It is difficult to see how an intelligent teacher
can be satisfied with less than this work. In order to succeed
in these tasks, the teacher must, of course, study some excellent
system of map-drawing.

The Subjects of Intermediate Geography. (1) The
course in intermediate geography should cover about four
years, the period corresponding to the grammar-school life of
the pupil. (2) The subjects to be studied are virtually the
same as in elementary geography, only that the " individuals"
are more complex and the "relations" more remote. The
order of the subjects, as well as their full enumeration, is to
be sought in the text-book used. Professor Frye's " Interme-
diate Geography" is possibly one of the best in the market.
(3) Stress should be laid on the " interrelation" of physical
and political facts. Obedience to this requirement will de-
velop intelligence in geographical study, and thus brighten the
pupil's pathway, while at the same time it honors "truth."
This interrelation is strongly emphasized in Professor Frye's
book.

Preparation of Lessons. Whenever it is necessary, the
teacher should pave the way for the lessons which he proposes
to assign. This he can do by means of illustrations, apparatus,
cabinet specimens, photographs, etc., and by referring the pupils
to supplementary texts as well as reference books. The pupil
should be required to study a lesson assigned in his text-book,
to compare it with other texts, to use reference books, diction-
ary, etc., and to draw.

The Recitation in Intermediate Geography. (1) The
pupil should not be allowed to bring his book to class, and the
teacher should not use a book, except as a supplement in re-
views. (2) The recitation should be partly written and partly
oral, both in the interest of language and culture. Sometimes
it may serve a special purpose to make the recitations wholly

GEOGEAPHY 307

written or wholly oral, or to alternate oral and written recita-
tions. (3) The inductive system of questioning should be
used in developing concepts, definitions, and principles. The
preparation of the lesson can be tested by combining catechet-
ical questions with the pupil's discussion of topics. (See
Frye's " Outline.") The topical method should predominate
in reviews. Great enthusiasm can be cultivated in the class
by means of occasional talks on geography. This is the great
opportunity of the scholarly teacher. Occasionally, too, the
regular course should be interrupted by a recitation on current
history. Such a lesson, if it be brought into its geographical
relations, will reveal to the pupil the physical basis of history.
The pupils should be invited to criticise the language, etc., of
recitations, and to discuss interesting questions. (4) Drills on
relief globes and outline maps should precede and accompany
the lessons of the text-book. The ends in view in such drills
are (a) to present geographical phenomena to the imagination ;
and (6) to pave the way through the imagination for the under-
standing and memory. In order to accomplish these tasks,
the various features must not only be " pointed out," but de-
scribed and studied. Great pains should be taken to cultivate
the pupil's interest in these drills. (5) Recitations thus con-
ducted will be in accordance with the " principles of instruc-
tion."

IV. THE HIGHER COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY.

The purpose of this treatise limits the treatment of the
higher course in geography to the following topics : (1) The
Tasks of Higher Geography ; (2) The Gradation of the
Course ; and (3) The Methods of Work.

The Tasks of Hig-her Geography. The tasks of higher
geography are as follows : (1) To observe the most complex
" individuals" (subjects) and to study the " remotest" relations
(connections) in geography ; (2) To develop teachers of geog-
raphy ; and (3) To develop geography, i.e., to contribute to

308 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

the " science" of geography. The first task is to be attempted
in high schools and colleges, and in the interests of scientific
culture ; the second task belongs to Normal Schools ; and the
third to the University. (See the First, Second, Third, and
Ninth Principles of Instruction.)

The Gradation of the Higher Geography Course.
There are three stages in the course of higher geography, (1)
The High School aud College Course ; (2) The Normal School
Course ; and (3) The University Course.

High School and College Geography. In the elementary
and intermediate courses, the most complex physical individ-
uals (subjects) and the remotest relations were beyond the
pupil's power. In the high-school period he becomes mature
enough to attempt an ordinary text-book on " physical" geog-
raphy. In the college period he can take up " comparative"
geography. Guyot's " Earth and Man" and Ritter's " Com-
parative Geography" are appropriate texts.

Nonnal School Geography. The Normal School ought to
provide courses in (1) Political Geography, (2) Physical Geog-
raphy, and (3) The Pedagogics of Geography. The texts of
Guyot and Sitter should be supplementary, and Frye's " The
Child and Nature" deserves the most careful study.

University Geography. The University should provide
courses in (1) Comparative Geography, (2) The Correlation of
Geography and History, and (3) Original Investigation.

The Methods of Higher Geography. (1) The sources
of information in higher geography should be multiplied as
much as possible. (2) The strictest logic should pervade both
preparation and recitation. (3) The "science-method," i.e.,
the "laboratory" method, must, of course, predominate in
the university work in geography.

GEOGRAPHY 309

V. THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

Perhaps no subject in the public school curriculum has
greater merits as an educational means. (See the Report
of the " Committee of Fifteen.") Four points deserve our
present consideration, (1) The Culture Value of Geography ;
(2) The Instruction Value of Geography ; (3) The Practical
Value of Geography ; and (4) The Training of the Geogra-
phy Teacher.

The Culture Value of Geography. The nature of the
subject and the necessary lesson-method call into vigorous ser-
vice all the functions of the mind. (The student of methods
should be required to show the details of this truth.)

The Instruction Value of Geography. The facts and
truths of geography are not only very interesting in them-
selves, but, by reason of their bearing on other studies and
on the happiness of man, they deserve also to be a part of
thorough scholarship.

The Practical Value of Geography. The study of geog-
raphy conies into direct connection with industry, commerce,
travel, political transactions, general intelligence, etc. (The
student of methods should be required to work out the details
of this problem.)

The Training of the Geography Teacher. Inasmuch as
the possibilities of geography are so great, the teacher's re-
sponsibility must be proportionally great. In order to per-
form his tasks with justice to the subject and with satisfaction
to himself, a twofold training is necessary : (1) A training in
the " subject" of geography ; and (2) A training in the prin-
ciples and methods of teaching geography. These two prep-
arations should, of course, go hand in hand as true comple-
ments.

310 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

CHAPTER X.

HISTORY.

Inasmuch as the first requisite in ideal instruction is a
definite conception of the branch to be taught, this chapter
must be an inquiry into (1) The Nature of History, and (2)
Instruction in History.

A. THE NATURE OP HISTORY.

The nature of history is conveniently considered under the
following heads: (1) The "Subject" of History; (2) The
Psychology of History ; and (3) The History of History.

I. THE "SUBJECT" OF HISTOEY.

In the same sense as plants are the subjects of botany, events
are the subjects of history.

" History" vs. " Natural History." In its widest appli-
cation, history is the study of all events, impersonal as well
as personal. The differences between such impersonal events
as the life of a plant or an animal, and such personal events
as the career of a man or the achievements of a nation, are so
great as to justify the division in history commonly denoted
by the terms " Natural History" and " History." Only those
events in which persons are in question, such as the career of
individuals, the development of institutions (schools, churches,
states, commerce, etc.), the progress of civilization, etc., consti-
tute the subject of history in its strictest sense.

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HISTORY.

There are two tasks in history : (1) The ascertainment of
facts, and (2) Inquiry into the relations of facts. Therefore,
the necessary processes in history are (1) Observation, and (2)

HISTORY 311

Explanation. (See the Fifth Principle of Knowledge and
the Second Principle of Instruction.)

Observation. The facts of history are known (1) By one's
own observation, i.e., by direct observation ; and (2) Through
the medium of other observers, i.e., by indirect observation.

Direct Observation. The witness of an event ascertains
facts by means of judgment combined with perception. A
general, for example, knows facts by means of his senses.
This mode of observation is termed Direct Observation. The
reliability of direct observation depends on two factors, (1)
The nature of the fact, and (2) The character of the witness.
An ordinary observer may correctly ascertain, simple facts, but
only an expert can ascertain the facts in complex events. A
reporter, for example, might correctly observe the transactions
of a skirmish, while only the initiated commander could fully
observe the features of a campaign. In any case, prejudice
vitiates the process of observation.

Indirect Observation. Authors of treatises on history are
rarely actual witnesses of events. They must ascertain facts
through the medium of witnesses or their records. This mode
of ascertaining the facts of history is termed Indirect Obser-
vation. Indirect observation presupposes (1) The competence
of witnesses, and (2) The credibility of documents. The in-
competence and prejudice of witnesses and the credulity of
authors creep so readily into the records of events, that all
history has been called " a lie." This charge is obviously too
strong, but it emphasizes the difficulty of the historian's tasks
when he must ascertain facts indirectly.

Explanation. Inquiry into the relations of events is
termed Explanation. The two tasks of explanation are (1)
The ascertainment of laws (the invariableness in causes and
effects) ; and (2) Prevision in accordance with laws. The
necessary processes (see the Fifth Principle of Knowledge and
the Tenth Principle of Instruction) are (1) Induction and (2)

312 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Deduction. The former process makes history a science ; the
latter reduces it to practical rules of life.

Induction in History. Two features of induction in history-
deserve special attention :

(1) The complexity of the task is very great. Facts must
be ascertained before laws can be discovered. (See the Fifth
and Sixth Principles of Knowledge.) This preparatory ascer-
tainment of facts is a difficult task (see preceding paragraph) ;
but a greater difficulty presents itself in the " second premise"
of the inductive argument. In the following syllogism^ for
example, the second premise is very bold :

The Romans and other people rebelled against oppression;

These nations represent human nature ;

Therefore all nations will rebel against oppression.

The variety of conditions to which the nations of different
lineage, centuries, and places are subject by reason of religious,
social, political, physical, and other differences, makes it seem-
ingly impossible to foreknow what a people will do against
oppression. That the task is not r, nlly impossible is assumed
on two grounds, (a) The remarkable uniformity in human
nature; and (6) The cumulative force of examples.

(2) The complexity of the task of ascertaining laws in his-
tory, as well as the belief in the possibility of such ascertain-
ment, though its success has thus far been only partial, appear
in the fact that there are three distinct theories of history,
(a) The materialistic theory, briefly stated, is that events are
the direct effects of man's conditions. This theory fails to do
justice to God and man as causes of events ; it virtually de-
nies that freedom is an endowment of mind, (6) The theistic
theory, that events are the direct workings of God, also fails
to do justice to the character of God, and ignores man's ob-
vious participation in events, (c) The spiritualistic theory, that
events are acts of mind, assumes that God permits and partici-
pates in events, and that man's conditions are the stimuli in

HISTOEY 313

events. Inasmuch as this theory does justice to God's charac-
ter, and gives a consistent account of human nature in its re-
lation to circumstances, it is obviously the true explanation of
history. On account of the many factors that enter into the
problem, the full development of explanatory history (philos-
ophy of history) will require centuries ; but even now this
philosophy is fast becoming the realized dream of historians,
and, in time, it will be matured into as exact a system as
astronomy, geology, and biology.

Deduction in History. Two features of deduction in his-
tory deserve special attention :

(1) It is possible to reckon out the exact course of any fu-
ture cannon-ball because we know the forces that enter into its
composition, but it is far more difficult to foreknow events in
history, because we do not know exactly the moral momentum,
gravity, friction, etc., that will enter into human aifairs. These
differences in the conditions of events are so great as to make
prevision difficult even for such experts as political leaders.

(2) To many great thinkers this difficulty in history seems
insurmountable. But the supposition that prevision in history
is impossible seems too sweeping ; it fails to account for the
common conviction that history as experience is " the best
teacher." This conviction is the practical argument in favor
of history as a branch of study in our schools. Although
such prevision is not identical with prophecy, it serves a very
practical purpose in the education of a citizen.

Definition of History. Observation, induction, and de-
duction are, accordingly, the essential processes in history.
But these processes, together with a systematic statement of
results, constitute science. Th^efore history is a science. In-
asmuch as events are the " subject" of history, it is completely
defined as the science of events.

Species of History. Various convenient divisions of the
task of history are possible. Thus arise the species of history

314 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

known as Biography (the history of a person), Fragments of
History (the history of an epoch of time), Compends of His-
tory (the history of the great events of a country), General
History (the history of nations through all epochs of time).
Complete History (the history of all the events of a nation),
etc.

III. THE HISTORY OF HISTORY.

The history of history is a most interesting study. Our
inquiry must be limited to two topics, (1) The Stages in the
Evolution of History ; and (2) The Present Status of History.

Stages in the Evolution of History. Herodotus is
known as the " Father of History." In one sense this is not
true, for epic poetry, inscription, and legends are forms of
descriptive history. It is true, these forms of history are not
literally credible, but as efforts they must be classified with
descriptive history. Accordingly, descriptive history began in
the very earliest times. Explanatory history began in modern
times. German, French, and English historians, such as
Raumer, Guizot, and Green, tried to trace effects to their
causes, but rarely attempted anything like prevision. It is
only lately, and possibly through the stimulus of Guizot's
efforts, that explanatory history is becoming philosophy and
practical guidance.

The Present Status of History. Modern school histories
for younger pupils are rather descriptive than explanatory,
and when, as in the books of Fisher, Myers, Montgomery,
Morris, and others, explanations are attempted, they are retro-
spective rather than prospective views. It is only in univer-
sities that history is beginning to be evolved into a philosophy
of events, the purpose being to develop historians and philo-
sophical scholarship. It is to be earnestly hoped that our
school histories may soon be developed into a practical guid-
ance study, in somewhat the same sense as arithmetic, grammar,
and botany are guidance studies.

HISTOEY 315

B. INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY.

To meet the requirements of ideal instruction, the teacher
of history must understand, (1) The Courses of History ; (2)
The Tasks of the Courses ; (3) The Methods of Instruction,
and (4) The Importance of History.

The Courses of History- The logical relation of events
is inseparable from their relations in space and time. This
conjunction imposes upon the student of history the unique
necessity of thinking events in space and time in order to
understand the course of events — as causes and effects ; it also
helps to determine the phases of complexity in the relations
of events. The consequent series of subjects and tasks con-
stitutes the courses of history as science. These courses (with-
out going into the argument that reveals them, since the reader
is expected to find a parallel argument in the chapter on geog-
raphy) are as follows : (1) The Elementary Course ; (2) The
Intermediate Course ; and (3) The Higher Course.

I. THE ELEMENTARY COUESE IN HISTOEY.
Each course of history has its specific tasks, methods, and
subjects. Inasmuch as tasks determine methods and suggest
subjects, these topics will be taken up in order.

a. THE TASKS OF ELEMENTARY HISTORY.

The specific tasks of instruction in elementary history are
(1) To construct simple events in the pupil's imagination and
memory ; and (2) To cause inquiry into the immediate (ob-
vious) relations of events. The performance of these tasks
virtually satisfies the requirements of ideal instruction. (See
the chapter on Principles of Instruction.)

The Construction of Events in the Pupil's Mind. The
pupil must construct the teacher's account of simple events
into seeming realities, as adults do when they read the account
of Napoleon crossing the Alps. Since this process of imagina-

316 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

tion is the pupil's substitute for perception, and the only prac-
tical substitute, it is a specific necessity in history. The events
thus constructed in imagination must, of course, be impressed
upon the memory of the pupil and made permanent posses-
sions of his mind.

Inquiry into the Relations of Events. The conception
of events and memory are only introductory processes in the
study of history. This introduction, however, in combination
with simple judgment, furnishes the pupil's mind with the facts
of space and time, and thus prepares the pupil to see the con-
nection of events as parts, and as causes and effects. It is only
the most obvious (immediate) relations of events that are
appropriate subject-matter for beginners in history, but to re-
press inquiry, or to require pupils to imagine and remember
events without stimulating rational inquiry, is to stultify the
pupil's reasoning powers. There are many opportunities even
in elementary classes for simple induction and deduction, and
to miss such opportunities is to fail as a teacher. (See the
Sixth and Tenth Principles of Instruction.) When, for ex-
ample, the pupil has learned the story of Penn's treaty with
the Indians at Philadelphia, he should be induced to ask why
Penn treated the Indians as he did, how the Indians kept their
word to Penn, whether they always (law) kept their promises,
what therefore was the best way to get along with Indians.
In this series of inquiries, simple and natural enough for chil-
dren, the whole pupil (intellect, feeling, and will) is virtually
called into activity. Thus all the requirements of ideal in-
struction are satisfied.

h. THE METHOD OF ELEMENTARY HISTORY.

Suitable means and elective management of means are the
two essentials of a good method. We must, accordingly, con-
sider at this point (1) The Means in Elementary History ; and
(2) The Events of a Recitation in Elementary History.

HISTORY 317

The Means in Elementary History. The possibility of
representing space and time concretely by means of pictures,
maps, and charts makes these the most suitable, if not (see
the Fourth Principle of Knowledge) the indispensable, means
in elementary history, where, as we have jnst seen, one end
in view in accordance with the principles of instruction is to
represent events concretely to the imagination, thus aiding not
only the memory but especially also the understanding of
events as contents of space and time. Books adapted to the
pupil's capacity, and planned with special reference to the
child's love of concrete thought, are the appropriate supple-
ments, and should become regular means the third year of his-
tory. (See the first four Principles of Instruction.)

The Events of a Recitation in Elementary History.
A recitation in elementary history should consist of three
events : (1) Reconstruction, (2) Additional Construction, and
(3) Explanation.

Reconstruction. A recitation in history should begin with
review, and the review should begin as far back as time allows
or logic requires. Two desirable results can be accomplished
by means of such reviews: (1) The pupil's acquisitions be-
come permanent possessions, and (2) The cumulative junction
of old and new lessons aids the pupil's understanding and
promotes interest. In these reviews the pupil should be re-
quired to start at some definite point of time, or with some
definite fact, and tell what he knows in a connected way, with
as little interruption on the part of the teacher as possible.
More than one pupil should be requested to tell the same story
in speech or writing ; this will stimulate competitive eiforts.
All the members of the class must be made to understand that
they may be called upon to supplement or repeat the recita-
tion of any other member. In the hands of a knowing teacher,
such reviews become both stepping-stones and incentives to the
" new matter" of a recitation. Inasmuch as these reviews are

318 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

corrective, they are indispensable to the constructive process
that must follow ; apart from such correction all additions are
likely to be blunders in architecture.

Construction. The constructive work of a recitation in ele-
mentary history consists of instruction, integration, and cor-
rection. (1) In the absence of text-books, and in accordance
with the requirements of elementary instruction (see Princi-
ples of Instruction), the teacher relates additional history to
his class, using objects, pictures, relics, charts, maps, etc., to
illustrate his narratives, and proceeding in such a way as to
require the pupils to interpret what they hear by comparing
it with experiences. The procedure should be as perfect a sub-
stitute of actual observation as possible. The teacher must be
careful to adapt the " new matter" which he relates to the
pupil's interest and present powers. He must also be certain
of the attention of the whole class. (2) In ideal instruction
the pupil's mind is at work as it would be in actual observa-
tion. To make sure of this, and to assist the process, the
pupil must be required to describe in his own way the new
structure in his mind. In other words, this descriptive process
is important for three reasons : it requires the pupil's attention
to the teacher's instruction ; it renders the facts learned con-
crete in their integration by constructing them in the imagina-
tion ; and it is an excellent discipline in language. (3) To
make sure that the structure which the teacher is trying to
construct in the pupil's imagination and memory is not de-
fective, and that all the members of the class are building suc-
cessfully, he must ask " search-light," or " X-ray" questions.
It is essential to ideal instruction that the teacher should be a
master in this corrective process.

Explanation. In order to exhaust the possibilities of the
recitation in elementary history, and to improve as well as
employ the whole pupil (intellect, feeling, and will), explana-
tion must be added to review and description. (See the

HISTOEY 319

Fourth, Seventh, and Tenth Principles of Instruction.) Ex-
planation, as was pointed out, is an inquiry into relations.
The process begins with induction and ends in deduction. In
elementary history, only the obvious (immediate) relations are
appropriate subject matter.

Suggestion. In due time suitable books should be brought
into the recitation as supplements to the teacher's narratives
and explanations. The teacher may sometimes read what he
has already told the class, or partly developed in their minds
by means of questions, thus leading the pupils to see the use
of books, and stimulating the desire to read. He may also
suggest books to be read by the pupils. A suitable text-book
should become the basis of the recitations the third year.

The " Subjects" of Elementary History. The possi-
bility of interesting pupils, and the working possibilities of
the class, determine the choice of subjects in elementary his-
tory. (See Principles of Instruction.) Accordingly, elemen-
tary history should begin with interesting biography. (1)
Inasmuch as local biography is nearest to the child's imagina-
tion, it is the best introduction to history in its larger sense.
(2) The second half of the first year should be devoted to
those persons around whom the great events of American his-
tory cluster. Introducing the class to the most appropriate
characters of each epoch somewhat in their chronological
order and in close association with their geography, the teacher
should endeavor especially to develop right concepts and atti-
tudes in pupils.

Having become acquainted with the representative charac-
ters of American biography, the pupil is prepared to study
collections of persons. Those events that stand out conspic-
uous in the various epochs of American history, and which
must be made the subject of extended study in later years, are
practically the most appropriate subjects for the second year
in history.

320 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Pupils introduced into history in the way just suggested
should be ready to take up Morris's " Elementary History,"
or an equivalent. Lessons should be regularly assigned and
prepared as supplements to the teacher's instruction, but the
requirements should not be difficult. Such a persuasive in-
troduction to a book is of the greatest importance to a right
conception of the function of books in general.

II. THE INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN HISTORY.

The course of history which is appropriate to the average
grammar-school pupil is conveniently termed the intermediate
course.

a. THE TASKS OF INTERMEDIATE HISTOEY.

The characteristic tasks of intermediate history are as fol-
lows : the conception of individuals (subjects) of greater com-
plexity ; the multiplication of concepts (characters, events) ;
and inquiry into remoter relations of cause and effect.

Imagination of Complex Subjects. According to the
requirements of ideal instruction, the more complex phases of
men (and events) to whom the pupil was introduced in the
elementary course are appropriate subjects in the intermediate
course. Washington, for example, was known to the elemen-
tary pupils as an exemplary son, a heroic youth, etc. ; but to
the intermediate pupil he becomes an officer in the French and
Indian Wars, the commander-in-chief in the Revolutionary
War, and finally the President of the United States. These
wars, too, were known to the elementary pupils, but only in
their simplest phases. The intermediate pupil observes strong-
holds, armies, marches, battles, retreats, treaties, etc.

Addition of Subjects. Men and events to which the ele-
mentary pupils were not introduced at all must be introduced
in the intermediate course. In other words, intermediate his-
tory deals not only with subjects of greater complexity, but

HISTORY 321

also increases the number of subjects as much as the nature
of the case may require.

Inquiry into Remoter Relations. It becomes necessary
for the intermediate pupil to study not only the causes and
eflfects of isolated events, but also their connection as a course
of events. It would, of course, be unreasonable to expect
philosophical insight at this stage of history, but pupils ready
for the average high school should know at least the " thread"
of American history and such principles of American civic life
as fit them to be good citizens, even if they should never be
able to take a high-school course.

b. THE METHOD OF INTERMEDIATE HISTOEY.

The following topics deserve our attention at this point :
(1) The ISTecessary Means in Intermediate History ; (2) The
Preparation of Lessons ; and (3) The Events of a Recita-
tion.

The Necessary Means. Since pupils of the intermediate
course in any branch of study should be required to depend
more upon themselves than upon the teacher as a source of in-
formation, they must be supplied with the necessary substi-
tutes: (1) The pupil of intermediate history needs a syste-
matic catalogue of subjects to be studied. A text-book such
as Morris's " History of the United States" is therefore in-
dispensable. (2) The liabit of comparing authorities — a most
important habit in education — should begin in the interme-
diate course of history. The pupil should therefore have
access to supplementary text-books. (3) A text-book is only
an outline of that which may be known on most subjects. As
a stimulus to broader and deeper scholarship, reference books
are indispensable. (4) Then, too, it is impossible to under-
stand history apart from its geography. The pupil should
therefore have access to suitable maps, charts, etc. Relief

21

322 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

maps of battle-fields, etc.^ made of papier-mache are especially
helpful to the pupil.

The Preparation of Lessons. Economy and discipline
require that in the case of intermediate pupils in history the
preparation and recitation of lessons should be distinct events.

The Teacher's Preparation. There are at least two reasons
why the teacher's mastery of the subject to be taught should
be as perfect as possible : (1) Such mastery is likely to enthuse
the teacher, so that he works with purpose and energy. (2)
The teacher must master a subject with all his powers in order
that he may kno\v what mental activities to call into service in
his pupils and in what order. Knowing these points, he can
form an intelligent plan for the prospective recitation, choose
the best means, and prepare himself to use these means most
eifectively. Thus it follows that the teacher of history must
study the pupil's text- book in connection with other text-
books, maps, pictures, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, etc., think
every lesson into its connection with preceding and following
lessons, and plan the recitation to meet all the requirements.

The PupiPs Preparation. A definite lesson having been
assigned, and helpful directions given, the pupil should be re-
quired to study his text in connection with other texts, maps,
cyclopaedias, and the dictionary. The teacher must insist on
important elates, names, places, etc. Every pupil should be
made to feel that every lesson ought to improve his vocabulary
and sentences, but no pupil should be allowed to commit the
text. The habit of thinking the lesson in one's own language,
arranging the thoughts of the lesson into a system, and bring-
ing it into connection with past lessons, should be developed
in all pupils. Progressive maps and outlines may be required
as part of the preparation of pupils in intermediate history.

The Recitation in Intermediate History. The items to
be considered in this connection are as follows : (1) Written
Work ; (2) Oral Work ; (3) The Examination of the Writ-

HISTOEY 323

ten Work ; (4) The Assignment of Lessons ; and (5) Review
Recitations.

Written Work. (1) The following are obvious merits of
written work in recitations : it is a stimulus to thorough prep-
aration of lessons ; it is a better test of the pupil's preparation
and capacity ; it enables the teacher to employ more pupils
simultaneously ; it is the teacher's best opportunity to present
the " thread" of history in the questions which he prepares
for those pupils who are to write out the recitation ; it is a fine
opportunity for the pupil to tell in a connected way what he
knows and thinks ; and it is an excellent supplement to the
regular work in composition. (2) The black-board is the inost
suitable means for written work in recitations. The places at
the board should be numbered. Numbered questions — a logi-
cal series of questions, the series beginning in reviews and
bringing these into connection with the advance lesson, the
whole arrangement so planned as to cover the ground in out-
line— carefully prepared by the teacher should be placed be-
low the corresponding numbers over the black-board as soon
as the class is ready for work. As soon as these questions
have been assigned to the class " by numbers," the persons to
whom the numbers were assigned should be requested to pass
to the board, write their name at the top, copy the question,
analyze it into topics, and proceed to write out the necessary
paragraphs. (3) The teacher should spare no efforts to develop
in his pupils right habits and tastes in spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, diction, sentence qualities, plan of paragraphs,
penmanship, etc. No book should be allowed in the recita-
tion. Both pupils and teachers should cultivate self-reliance.

Oral Work While part of the class is reciting at the board,
the teacher puts questions to the other members of the class,
requires oral answers, conducts drills, offers suggestions, etc.
A skilful teacher can make this oral work a stimulus to prep-
aration of lessons, a discipline in thinking, a valuable means

324 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

of instruction, and an excellent opportunity in the develop-
ment of the pupil's power to speak.

The Examination of the Work on the Board. When about
half the time allotted to the recitation has expired, and all the
writers have returned from the board, the examination of the
board should begin. The writers should read in the order of
the numbers on the board. The reading of both questions
and answers should be distinct, forcible, and elegant. The
whole class should be required to hold themselves In readiness
to criticise, but always in strict subordination to the teacher's
supervision. The teacher should supplement, correct, and
instruct whenever time allows and wherever it is proper. In
the performance of this task skill in drawing will be very
helpful, and superior scholarship will be an inspiration to the
class.

The Assignment of Lessons. In advanced classes and in
cases where the teacher can estimate the probabilities, the next
lesson may be assigned before the regular work of a recitation
begins. Commonly, however, it is best to assign the next les-
son at the close of a recitation. The teacher's assignments
should be very definite. The pupil should be directed to the
various sources of information, and helpful suggestions should
be added.

A Review Recitation. In addition to the reviews with which
all recitations should begin, there should be special reviews as
often as tune permits and necessity dictates. In these review
recitations the questions on the board should be a progressive
series, i.e., events should be considered in their chronological
order. The oral questions may be put in reverse order for
variety and discipline. This regressive order is rather diffi-
cult for younger pupils.

The " Subjects" of Intermediate History. (1) An ordi-
nary text-book on history is the best practical catalogue of
subjects in intermediate history. (2) In order to be a suitable

HISTORY 325

text-book, it should be adapted in subject-matter, plan, and
language to the stages of the pupil's development. The sub-
ject-matter should not be too abstract and general. The plan
of a book for intermediate pupils should be rather ethno-
graphic than synchronistic ; it should be logical, but not too
complex. The vocabulary for a class in intermediate history
should be unpretentious, precise, and not too copious, while
the structure of sentences and paragraphs should be simple,
concise, and elegant.

III. THE HIGHER COURSE IN HISTORY.

The study of history in the high school, normal school, col-
lege, and university deserves for several reasons to be termed
the higher course in history : (1) The ends in view are higher ;
and (2) The scientific method, though employed in miniature
in the elementary course, and with considerable strictness in
the intermediate course, is pressed to its utmost limits in the
higher institutions of learning.

The Tasks of Higher History. There are several distinct
ends in view in higher history : (1) To train the student so
thoroughly in the subject-matter and method of history that
he will realize its intrinsic merits, and therefore love and study
it after school days have ended. (2) To equip the general stu-
dent and the great professions with such knowledge of history
as is needed in their various pursuits. (3) To pursue the
study of history as science and philosophy, and to contribute
as much as possible to the development of the science and phi-
losophy of history.

The Distribution of "Subjects" in Higher History.
Inasmuch as the method of study and recitation in higher his-
tory, though somewhat modified to suit maturer minds, is vir-
tually the same as before, no additional description is neces-
sary at this point. It seems necessary, however, as a matter
of instruction for young men and women, to map out a suit-

326 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

able course in higher history. The following outline is re-
spectfully submitted :

High-School History. (1) Our high schools should offer a
course in general history, as much as may be found in Myers ;
and, if time allows, a special course in Greek, Eoman, and
English history should be added. (2) A course in civil gov-
ernment also belongs to the high-school course in history.
Every high-school graduate should know enough about the
Constitution of his own State and that of the United States to
enable him to be a good citizen, and, if need be, a good officer.

Normal-School History. (1) Normal schools should offer a
very thorough course in the history of the United States, gen-
eral history, and civil government. (2) The pedagogics of
history must, of course, be added.

College History. It devolves on colleges to offer courses
in general history, special courses in the history of the great
nations, courses in the various departments of civics, and a
course in the philosophy of history.

University History. It belongs to the university (1) to offer
an extended course in the philosophy of history ; and (2) to
develop the science and philosophy of history by original con-
tributions. The method of the university must, of course, be
scientific in the fullest sense, and implies original investiga-
tions.

IV. THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY.

It must be admitted that such a catalogue of events, dates,
and names as frequently passes for history is perhaps interest-
ing enough as reading-matter, but of no special value in the
education of a man or woman. The fact that history has too
commonly consisted of such enumerations, and that these are
so often simply committed to memory, is deplorable enough.
But history is more than " a record of events" ; it is a science,
and as such must be a valuable instrument in education. The

HISTORY 327

opinions of Compayre, Fitch, and the " Committee of Fif-
teen" on this subject are particularly interesting.

The Culture-Value of History. Inasmuch as history is
a science, the necessary method of study calls into service the
whole pupil (intellect, feeling, and will). The study of his-
tory, as we know from a consideration of its method, is a most
excellent means in the training of the imagination, memory,
judgment, reasoning, conscience, patriotism, etc.

The Instruction- Value of History. As the science of
events, history is a school- master of citizens and moral agents.
(1) History is the citizen's school- master because it teaches
him the laws of national life just as effectively as physiology
teaches the laws of physical life. (2) A knowledge of causes
and effects in the moral career of historical characters is moral
philosophy in the concrete.

A Source of Satisfaction. To thinking men and women
the science of events must be a source of great satisfaction.
Just as people who have never viewed the world of nature
from its mountain-tops rejoice with exceeding great joy on
finally beholding the glories and wonders of earth, so do those
who behold the world "as it was and is and shall be" rejoice
in the gratification of their philosophic senses.

The Training- of Teachers of History. Since the study
of history can be made such a valuable instrument in educa-
tion, it must be obvious that the responsibility of teachers of
history is very great. This conclusion obtains added force
from the fact that history has so commonly been taught simply
as "a record of events" and by the "rote" method. It fol-
lows, therefore, that teachers of history need a thorough train-
ing (1) in history itself, and (2) in the pedagogics of history.

328 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
CHAPTER XL

DRAWING.

The true object of instruction is to cause right mental
processes in pupils. (See the Principles of Instruction.) It
is obvious that, in order to cause right mental processes in
teaching any branch of study, the teacher should hnow those
processes. Therefore, the pedagogics of drawing is concerned
with two general topics : (1) The Nature of Drawing ; and (2)
Instruction in Drawing.

A. THE NATURE OP DRAWING-.

The nature of drawing is most conveniently studied under
the following heads : (1) The Subject of Study ; (2) The Psy-
chology of Drawing ; (3) The Definition of Drawing ; and (4)
The History of Drawing.

I. THE SUBJECT OF STUDY.

In the sense in which arithmetic is the study of numbers,
drawing is the study of linear representation of forms.

Linear Representation of Forms. It is possible to simu-
late the real outline of objects so perfectly on a flat surface that
on seeing the representation we recognize the intended sem-
blance. This linear representation of objects is termed Draio-
ing. Three things in the process of drawing require special
attention : (1) The Length of Lines ; (2) The Direction of
Lines ; and (3) Marks of Expression.

The Length of Lines. There are two modes of determining
the length of lines in drawing : (1) The length-facts of an
object may be observed and represented without the aid of
measuring instruments. (2) The length-facts of an object may

DRAWING 329

be observed and represented by means of measuring instru-
ments, such as the foot-rule, compass, etc.

The Direction of Lines. (1) The lines of a drawing that
represents a plane surface to the eye directly in front of its
centre have the same direction as the lines of the surface rep-
resented in the drawing. (2) As the distance from the eye
increases, the surface of an object seems to grow smaller. (See
Natural Philosophy.) For the same reason receding surfaces
seem smaller. This appearance of objects is represented in
drawings by convergent receding and shortened vertical lines.
The position directly opposite the eye is indicated by a point
on the paper, and all receding lines representative of the edges
of objects are drawn to that point. Vertical lines, of course,
remain vertical in the drawing ; but, since the paper is sup-
posed to lie in a vertical plane, the vertical lines become shorter
as the distance from the point of vision increases, the length
being determined by the convergent lines. (3) There are two
modes of representing the direction, as well as the lines : (1)
" By eye," and (2) By means of instruments.

Marks of Expression. (1) Light is the indispensable condi-
tion of sight. It is on the sunny side of objects that the sur-
faces are illuminated ; the opposite surfaces are darker, and
shadows extend from them in the direction opposite from the
light, the boundaries of which are determined by the lines
that extend from the edges of the light past the object. (2)
In drawing, some point from which the light is supposed to
come must be assumed. The phenomena of light just de-
scribed must be represented by corresponding light, darkness,
and shadows. The marks that represent these phenomena
are termed Harks of Expression. Among the derivative phe-
nomena that may be thus represented are rotundity, opacity,
transparency, the grain of wood, the mechanical plan of sur-
faces, relative tones of coloring, etc.

330 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DRAWING.

The ideal method of studying linear representation of forms,
as well as numbers or plants, or any other subject, consists of
observation, induction, and deduction. (See the chapter on
the Nature of Knowledge.)

Observation in Dra^wing. The first step in the formal
study of drawing is observation, i.e., the ascertainment of facts.
Two species of facts must be ascertained in drawing : (1) The
Form-Facts of Objects, and (2) The Representation-Facts of
Form.

The Form-Facts of Objects. The first thing to do in order
to draw an object is to become acquainted with its outline, i.e.,
with its bounding lines, their direction, length, proportions,
etc. If, for example, the student should wish to draw a haf,
he must first ascertain the direction of the rim-lines, the
breadth of the rim, the height and shape of the crown, the
width of the band, etc.

The Representation- Facts of Form. It is not enough in
drawing to know the form-facts of an object ; the representa-
tion-facts must also be ascertained. In other words, the ob-
server must find out what lines will represent the object in
question to the imagination. In the case of a hat, for exam-
ple, the observer will find that a very small number of lines
virtually represent the hat completely.

Induction in Drawing. Two species of laws must be as-
certained in drawing: (1) The Form-Laws of Objects, and
(2) The Laws of Form-Representation.

The Fo7^m-Laws of Objects. It is found by comparison of
the form-facts of objects that all objects are analyzable into
the various elementary phases of the sphere, the cube, the cyl-
inder, the cone, the pyramid, etc. These form-laws of objects
must be developed in pupils just as any other law is developed,
i.e., by hypothesis and proof. The development of the con-

DRAWING 331

cepts of the elementary forms, together with the terms and
definitions that belong to their description, is the indispensa-
ble task of pupils who would be masters in drawing. It is
only when these concepts have become standards of compari-
son that objects cau be readily classified and represented.

The Laws of Form-Representation. It is found by compari-
son of facts that the length, direction, and repetition of lines
which represent objects to the imagination are subject to law,
just as the forms of objects are subject to law. (See Natural
Philosophy.) (1) The relative lengths to be represented can be
perfectly represented by means of a " scale of proportions."
(2) The appearance of objects of three dimensions is a perspec-
tive phenomenon subject to the laws of light, and therefore
capable of mathematically correct representation, the main feat-
ures of the problem being the point of vision, the level of the
eye, and the position of the object. (3) The amount of light,
or its absence, can be represented by such repetition of lines
as will simulate the phenomena in question.

The discovery of the laws of linear form-representation has
made a science of drawing possible, and the study of these
laws is as indispensable to great success in drawing as the
study of the laws of numbers is to great success in arithmetic.
It is only when these laws have become familiar that the
countless diversities of object-forms can be satisfactorily rep-
resented.

Deduction in Drawing-. There are two deductive tasks
in drawing : (1) The analysis of objects into type-forms, and
(2) The linear representation of objects.

Type-Form Analysis of Objects. The first thing to do in
systematic drawing is to discover the elementary form or
forms to which the object or imagination to be represented
belongs. If, for example, the student wishes to draw a
goblet, it is of the greatest advantage to him to see in the
goblet-form the elementary square and circle. Apart from

332 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

such analysis every task in drawing is an isolated, unclassified
experiment.

Linear Representation of Objects. There are two possible
modes of linear representation : (1) The learner may observe
and imitate the representation of an object. This mode of
drawing does not presuppose the analysis of the objects to be
drawn into the type-forms to which they belong. The task
requires perception, memory, imagination, and direct compari-
son, and is, therefore, the right thing for beginners. (See the
First Principle of Instruction.) (2) The learner may observe
the object to be drawn, analyze it into its type-forms, and
draw it by rational representation. This task requires a
knoM'^ledge of "scales of proportion," "perspective," and
" mathematics," and is therefore possible only for maturer
pupils. (See the Sixth Principle of Instruction.)

The Definition of Drawing-. The method of study just
described, together with a systematic statement of results, con-
stitutes science. A science of drawing is therefore possible,
its subject being linear representation of forms. But drawing,
as a physical realization of science, is also an art. Indeed,
this is the phase of drawing commonly in mind when the sub-
ject is mentioned. Briefly summed up, drawing is the science
and art of linear representation of forms. The following clas-
sifications are convenient : (1) The linear representation of
forms without the aid of measuring instruments is termed
Free-Hand Drawing. (2) Representation by means of instru-
ments is termed Mechanical Drawing. Both free-hand and
mechanical drawing become perspective drawing when distance,
direction, and light are taken into account. The special feat-
ure of perspective drawing is the process known as " fore-
shortening," i.e., the representation of two or three dimensions
by means of shorter and fewer lines as determined by " point
of vision." The terms descriptive, artistic, industrial, archi-
tectural, etc., name the purposes for which a drawing may be

DRAWING 333

made. Crayoning and engraving are also regarded as species
of drawing.

The History of Dra'wing'. The most ancient people had
some knowledge of drawing. The Oriental nations, especially
the Egyptians and the Babylonians, had a systematic knowl-
edge of the subject. Greece and Rome developed drawing
first into a fine and then into a useful art. Drawing was the
handmaid of geometry, one of the famous " seven liberal arts"
of the Middle Ages. The educational reformers, especially
Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, laid great stress on drawing.
In modern education drawing has become an absolute neces-
sity.

In primitive times drawing served as a substitute for
speech. The Egyptians were probably the first to produce a
system of " picture" writings. In Greece the aesthetic impulse
became the great stimulus to drawing. It has ever since con-
tinued to be the handmaid of the fine arts. Drawing first
became an educational means in Egypt and Greece. Esthetic,
moral, and practical interests have made drawing an impera-
tive means in modern education. In connection with manual
training, and as a part of it, drawing will acquire still greater
importance.

B. INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING-.

The nature of drawing makes inquiry into the following
subjects a necessity for teachers of drawing : (1) The Courses
of Instruction in Drawing ; (2) The Subjects of Study in the
Courses ; (3) The Methods of Instruction ; and (4) The Im-
portance of Drawing.

I. THE COUESES OF INSTEUOTION IN DEAWING.

The number of necessary adaptations of the subject and
method of drawing to the powers and needs of the pupils
determines the number and character of the courses of instruc-

334 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

tion. (See the Principles of Instruction.) The following
topics, therefore, deserve attention : (1) The Nature of the
Subject ; (2) Possibilities of the Pupil ; and (3) The Number
of Courses.

The Nature of the Subject. (1) Drawing "from pic-
tures" requires observation and imitation. The mental func-
tions thus brought into service are perception, memory, imagi-
nation, direct comparison, interest, and attention. (2) Drawing
" from objects" requires the analysis of the object to be drawn
into type-forms and rational representation. The mental
functions thus brought into service are perception, direct com-
parison (implying memory, abstraction, and imagination), de-
ductive reasoning (implying previous inductions and a train-
ing in mathematics), and attention (implying interest). (3)
Drawing " from problems," as in invention, requires rational
comprehension of the conditions and rational representation.
The task presupposes a knowledge of the elementary forms,
simple and composite, and a training in mathematics.

The Possibilities of the Pupil. (1) The power to imi-
tate (see Courses of Penmanship) is a characteristic power of
childhood. (2) The rational representation of objects of obser-
vation, presupposing skill in imitation as well as considerable
maturity in syllogistic thinking, is seldom possible before the
latter part of the grammar-school epoch. (3) The rational rep-
resentation of imaginations and problems requires a maturity
in abstraction and mathematics which is seldom to be found
before the high-school epoch.

The Number of Courses in Dra-wing-. In view of the
psychology of drawing and the powers of pupils, it seems
appropriate to arrange three courses of instruction in drawing :
(1) The elementary, or imitative course, (2) The intermediate,
or rational course ; and (3) The higher, or special course.

DRAWING 335

II. ELEMENTARY DRAWING.

The following topics deserve our attention at this point:
(1) The Subjects of Elementary Drawing, and (2) The Method
of Instruction.

The Subjects of Elementary Drawing. The passage
from subject to subject in drawing should be from the simple
to the complex, and from that which is known to that which
is in logical relation with it. (See First and Second Princi-
ples of Instruction.) Taking these requirements and the pos-
sibilities of the pupil into consideration, it is believed that the
following ground can be covered in about six years :

(1) The sphere and its obvious resemblances in objects.

(2) One face of the cube and its obvious resemblances.
This step includes the square and the rectangle, together with
such descriptive terms as straight line, right angle, etc.

(3) Two faces of the cube from various points of vision
and obvious resemblances. The worker begins with a front
view, and, after choosing a centre of vision, completes the top
face by first drawing receding lines and then choosing a rear
line for the top face. Lessons on the right and left faces of
the cube in connection with the front face should be added.
The faces may be represented as open and containing interest-
ing objects. No attempt should be made at this time to ex-
plain the centre of vision and receding lines. The appeal in
these lessons is principally to the child's great imitative power.

(4) Three or more faces of the cube from various right and
left positions, above and below the level of the eye, together
with obvious resemblances. In the course of these lessons
the pupil should be taught to recognize and name the three
species of receding lines, parallel lines, and surfaces. Special
lessons on the centre of vision and the horizon line will be
necessary.

(5) Easy composition of sphere and cube forms, together
with obvious resemblances and applications.

336 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

(6) The vertical cylinder in the various right and left posi-
tions, above and below the level of the eye, together with ob-
vious resemblances and applications. In connection with
these lessons the child should learn to distinguish plane from
curved and round surfaces.

(7) Tlie horizonal cylinder in the various positions, together
with obvious resemblances and applications.

(8) The receding cylinder in various positions, together with
obvious resemblances and applications.

(9) Easy composition of sphere, cube, and cylinder forms,
including obvious resemblances and applications. Easy prob-
lems may be added.

(10) Lessons on the hemisphere, cone, prism, etc., may be
introduced at this time.

(11) Easy invention hy line, including dictation, substitu-
tion, and designing, should be gradually introduced, but not
before the fifth or sixth year.

The Method of Instruction in Elementary Drawing-.
Two points deserve our present attention : (1) The Preparation
for Lessons in Elementary Drawing, and (2) The Recitation.

Preparation for Lessons in Elementary Drawing. (1) The
teacher of drawing should see to it that there is a supply of
necessary materials at hand. A black-board and its belong-
ings, paper and its belongings, and a collection of elementary
forms are among the important materials in elementary draw-
ing. A large assortment of larger and smaller objects that
obviously resemble the elementary forms is a most valuable
equipment in elementary drawing. (2) The teacher should prac-
tise placing and drawing the objects that are to be used in the
lessons. He should study how to introduce devices calculated
to interest children long enough in a given form to teach it
thoroughly. He should plan the steps which he must take, the
questions, hints, etc., and try to be prepared for all emergencies.

The Recitation in Elementary Drawing. The ideal method

DRAWING 337

of study, as already pointed out, consists of observation, in-
duction, and deduction in the order just submitted. The ideal
method of instruction (see Principles of Instruction) should,
therefore, cause these processes in pupils.

(1) The attention of the pupil must be directed to the form-
facts of the object in question and to the teacher's representa-
tion of these facts. The teacher must ask such questions and
give such hints, etc., as may stimulate and help the observing
pupil. In many instances this may need to be many times
repeated before the pupil can draw " from the picture," i.e.,
imitate the teacher's representation. It is at the pupil's suc-
cessful imitation of his picture, however awkward such imita-
tion may be at first, that the teacher of elementary drawing
must aim. (See the First Principle of Instruction.)

(2) It is not enough that the elementary pupil can draw the
elementary forms in question ; he should be taught to look for
obvious resemblances and possible applications until by and by
that elementary form shall have become a general concept that
serves him in his practical classification of objects. The
teacher must, therefore, show the pupil how to convert the
form in question into familiar object-forms. The happy sur-
prise which this revelation will produce in pupils will stimu-
late them to look for similar resemblances in the objects with
which they meet. These conversions of an elementary form
into familiar object-forms, and the teacher's representation of
object-forms that obviously resemble the elementary form in
question, should be imitated just as the elementary form itself
was imitated. When the pupil can do this a great deal has
been accomplished. (See the Fourth and Eighth Principles of
Instruction.)

(3) When the pupil has learned to recognize the elemen-
tary form in question, and to draw it from the picture, and
to imitate the teacher's conversions of the form into familiar
object-forms, as well as his representation of object- forms that

22

338 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

obviously resemble the elementary form, he should be taught
to draw, without the teacher's previous representation, such
objects as obviously embody the form in question. This is
termed " drawing from the object," and is a long step in ad-
vance ; the pupil has now learned to draw deductively, which
is the end aimed at in ideal instruction. (See the Eighth and
Tenth Principles of Instruction.)

(4) In due time the pupil should be taught to " draw from
problems." This task of invention implies familiarity with
the lines, surfaces, and possible positions of the elementary
forms, together with their technical description, and should
therefore not be attempted too soon. When the right time for
this work has come, the teacher may send his class to the
board and dictate by line the things to be done. There are
three possible ways of line dictation : (a) The teacher may dic-
tate the direction, length, and character of the lines, and expect
the pupils to produce them, thus inventing a picture ; (6) He
may propose a form and dictate substitutions of lines, as a
curve for a straight lino. This is called invention by line
substitution ; and (o) He may propose a form and dictate sub-
stitutions of lines that differ not only in hind but also in length.
This form of invention is called designing by line.

(5) Elementary pupils soon grow tired of one form. In
order to keep up the necessary interest in the form in ques-
tion the teacher must resort to various devices, such as placing
eggs, balls, birds, etc., upon, near, or into open forms. Suit-
able stories addressed to memory or imagination are very
effective devices. Teachers should, however, be careful not to
make such devices too prominent.

(6) It is believed that elementary pupils need no text-books
in drawing before the fifth or sixth year ; and even then it is
possible to get along without them.

Illustrative Lessons. The following lessons are subjoined
as illustrations of the method just described. They are de-

DEAWING 339

signed to illustrate the spirit of the method rather than the
historical details, which must be left to the individual teacher
under his particular circumstances.

The Sphere. Teacher. What do I hold in my hand,
Grace ? G. A ball. T. The shape of a ball is called Sphere.
Have you ever seen pictures of a sphere, Harry ? H. Yes,
sir. T. I think I know what you would like to do. H. I
would like to make pictures myself. T. Very well ; you will
be able to do so by and by. Now look at the ball in my
hand and fix its shape in your memory. (Turning to the
board and looking at the ball) Watch me, children ; I will
show you how to make a picture of this ball. (The teacher
draws a circle and adds a few marks of expression.) What
did I do, Mary ? M. You drew a ring and put little lines in
it ; you made a picture of the ball in your hand. T, You
may draw the same picture, Jane. (Jane steps to the board
or turns to her paper and " draws from the picture," but looks
at the ball to see if her picture resembles the ball.) T. Jane,
this is the right way to hold your pencil or crayon (showing
her). (Awkward positions of the body and improper ways of
holding the pencil or crayon should be corrected, but individ-
uality should not be crushed.) T. What have I done, Jacob?
J. You have changed the picture into a tennis-ball picture by
making a seam on it. T. The class may please try to do what
I did. (They do so with a will.) T. Think of some object
that looks like a ball. (The class name apples, oranges, onions,
etc.) T. Watch me, please. (Looking at an apple, the teacher
draws it with the stem on top.) Minnie. You looked at the
apple in your hand and then made a picture of it. I saw how
you fixed the stem. T. That is the right way to watch, Min-
nie. I will draw a number of apple-pictures, and you may
copy them at your seats. I will look at your work by and by,
to see how well you can draw. (Drawing " from the object"
should be gradually associated with drawing from pictures.)

340 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Two Cube-Paces. Teacher. What do I hold in my hand,
Ralph ? R. A. box. T. How many faces of the box can you
see if I hold it as I do ? R. Two ; the one toward me, and
the top face. T. Which face do you think I should draw first,
Albert ? ^. I think I would draw the one toward me first.
(The teacher heeds the suggestion and draws the front face.)
T. What shall I do now? ^. I do not know. T. Who can
help me ? (No one sees the right thing to do.) Please watch
me. (The teacher fixes the centre of vision, draws the neces-
sary receding lines, and, choosing the distance backward, com-
pletes the top face.) What have I done, Helen? H. You
made a dot, drew lines from the top corners of the square to
that point, and then drew another line j^arallel to the top line
of the square, thus completing the top face. (Lessons on the
square, rectangle, parallel lines, receding lines, and angles are
presupposed in this lesson.) T. That is just what I have done.
(Teachers must not expect perfect answers in these lessons.)
The whole class may please do on your papers what I did on
the board. You may also try to draw two faces of objects that
you can see or remember.

The Vertical Cylinder. T. What do I hold in my hand,
Maude ? if . A tomato can. (The children laugh.) T. The
shape of this can is called Cylinder. (The teacher writes the
word and requires the children to copy it.) T. How much of
the cylinder can you see from your seat if I hold it this way,
Harold ? iJ. I can see half way round the can and the whole
top. T. What is the shape of the top face ? H. It is a circle.
T. Can you see the bottom, Rufus ? i2. I can see only half
way round the bottom. T. What is the shape of the bottom?
R. It is round like the top. T. What is the shape from
top to bottom, Grace ? G. It is straight. T. Please watch
me. What did I do, Robert ? R. You drew a circle for the
top of the box, parallel lines for the sides, and a semicircle for
the rim of the bottom. T. What changes have I made, An-

DRAWING 341

nie ? A. You put apples into the box and drew the picture.
T. The class may draw the box with apples in it. (This may
be done at the seats or at the board.) T. If your eye were
somewhere in the line which I have just drawn, how much of
the box could you see when I hold it this way ? (The nine
possible positions should be studied and drawn, the teacher
drawing first and the children imitating. Various devices
should be introduced to keep up interest. In subsequent les-
sons the teacher should convert the cylinder into band-boxes,
stove-pipes, caps, hats, barrels, etc., and thus lead the pupils
to analyze familiar objects into type-forms. The children
should also be encouraged to bring such objects as seem to
embody the type-forms in question. Some of these should be
drawn " from pictures" ; others " from the object."

Dictation by Line. (The black-board is preferable to tablets
in class dictations. The pupils should be expected to measure
" by eye" and to draw " free-hand." The following dicta-
tions are quoted from Professor Augsburg's excellent manual,
" Elementary Drawing Simplified," which should be the com-
panion of every elementary teacher.

" (1) Draw a light vertical line 16" * long. This is called
the median line. (2) Through the upper extremity of the
median line draw a horizontal line projecting 2" on each side.
(3) 4" below this horizontal line draw another horizontal line
like it. (4) 3" below the last horizontal line draw a hori-
zontal line projecting 4" on each side of the median line, (5)
Through the lower extremity of the median line draw a hori-
zontal line like the last one. (6) Connect the extremities of
the first and second horizontal lines by vertical lines. (7)
Connect the extremities of the second and third horizontal
lines with oblique lines. (8) Connect the extremities of the
third and last horizontal lines with vertical lines."

* One indioe stands for feet, and two indices for inches.

342 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

III. INTERMEDIATE DRAWING.

The important features of intermediate drawing present
themselves under the following heads : (1) The Subjects of
Intermediate Drawing, and (2) The Method of Instruction.

The Subjects of Intermediate Drawing-. The following
subjects of study belong to the intermediate, or rational, course
of drawing. Two thirtj-minute lessons a week for about four
years should probably be devoted to this course :

(1) Derivative forms obtained by division of the sphere,
cube, cylinder, etc. In other words, the thread of the course
should be the same as that of the elementary course, but such
figures as can be obtained by one, two, or more divisions of the
first forms must be studied instead of the elementary wholes.
From the sphere, for example, we may thus derive the hemi-
spherCj the quarter-sphere, etc. From the cube may be derived
plinths, triangular prisms, oblong blocks, etc. (The methods-
student should be required to make and name the various
divisions.)

(2) Conversions into less obvious forms, together with recog-
nition of the type-forms in the objects which pupils meet.

(3) Compositions of the derivative figures, the number of
forms to be represented being determined by the number that
may have been studied.

(4) Invention by line and form.

(5) The elements of map-drawing in connection with geog-
raphy and history, and working drawings in connection with
modelling and the elements of manual training.

The Method of Instruction in Intermediate Drawing-.
(1) It is probably not advisable to dispense altogether with
drawing " from the picture" in the intermediate course (see the
first three Principles of Instruction), but drawing " from the
object" and " problem" must become the rule.

(2) In addition to such drawings as the teacher may see fit

DRAWING 343

to use as "preparations," he must strive to sujDervise the minds
of his pupils in such a way as to preserve the ideal method
described in elementary drawing.

(3) Inasmuch as objects to be drawn in this course should
first be analyzed into type-forms, the teacher must study how
to plo.Ge objects in the best positions. In order to keep up
proper interest in such tasks, there should be an interesting
collection of materials on hand for class use, and the teacher
should frequently draw interesting pictures as a stimulus to
the pupil's ambition.

(4) Suitable text-books, such as those of Professor Augs-
burg, the Prang system, etc., should be used as supplements
in intermediate drawing.

Remarh. The methods-students should be required to write
out illustrative lessons for intermediate work.

IV. HIGHER DRAWING.

The important features of the higher, or special, course of
drawing present themselves, as in the case of intermediate
drawing, under two heads : (1) The Subjects of Higher Draw-
ing, and (2) The Method of Instruction.

The Subjects of Higher Drawing. The following sub-
jects belong to the higher course of drawing. The course
requires complex reasonings and is designed to fit students for
special vocations. The tasks of this course must for various
reasons be divided between high schools, normal schools, and
technical schools :

(1) Derivative forms obtained by composition of various
forms. In other words, the logical thread of the other courses
is to be preserved, but while the thread is a series of concen-
trations on each of the elementary forms in order, the other
elementary forms and derivatives should be correlated with
the leading one.

(2) The type-groups should be converted into the object-

344 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

forms of nature, history, and imagination, and objects of
nature, history, and imagination should be interpreted into
the type-forms of which they may be embodiments.

(3) Landscapes, historic groups, fictions, etc.

(4) Invention by line, form, and idea. This is the sphere
of industrial, architectural, and high-art drawing.

(5) The various species of map-drawing should be made
the subject of special study on the part of teachers, geogra-
phers, surveyors, etc.

(6) Teachers should understand the pedagogics of drawing.
The Method of Instruction in Higher Drawing. The

method of higher drawing is virtually the same as that of in-
termediate drawing. The higher phases of the subject, the
special purposes in view, and the individuality of the teacher
must, of course, determine the necessary adjustments. The
pedagogics of drawing is a problem of psychology and econ-
omy, and must obviously be studied from those stand-points.
Suitable text-books are the necessary supplements.

V. THE IMPORTANCE OF DRAWING.

To appreciate the importance of drawing, one must under-
stand its efficiency as a means of culture and instruction. The
following topics deserve special consideration : (1) The Cul-
ture-Value of Drawing ; (2) The Instruction- Value of Draw-
ing ; (3) The Practical Value of Drawing; and (4) The
Training of Teachers of Drawing.

The Culture- Value of Drawing-, Properly taught, draw-
ing is the possible means of exercising the whole pupil (intel-
lect, feeling, and will). (The methods-student should be re-
quired to prove this statement.) The efficiency of drawing as
a means in the culture of the eye, the taste, and the hand has
long been known. (1) Drawing requires accurate and com-
plete observation, and therefore improves the eye. (2) It re-
quires the most accurate comparisons of distances, proportions,

DEAWING 345

directions, etc., and thus improves judgment. And inasmuch
as perfect rather than imperfect objects are usually selected for
study, drawing develops aesthetic judgment, or taste. This
tendency is augmented by the connection into which drawing is
brought with painting, etc. (3) Drawing employs the hand in
connection with the eye to express judgments, and thus not
only promotes a most important correlation, but also properly
subordinates the hand and eye thus brought into correlation
to the will. This correlation of the hand and eye, and their
subordination to the will, is one of the most important ends in
view in education. (See the chapter on the Nature of Educa-
tion.)

The Instruction Value of Drawing-. It is especially
through the study of " form" as required in drawing that the
mind discovers the expressive power of forms, and thus vir-
tually acquires a key to the interpretation of many thoughts,
emotions, and volitions, as embodied in Nature and Art. The
interpretations of Nature and Art which thus become possible
greatly increase, as appears from statistics, the appreciation
of Nature and Art, and thus add materially to human happi-
ness. This result is one of the right ideals in education. (See
the Fifth General Principle of Education.)

The Practical Value of Drawing-. The practical advan-
tages of drawing are as follows : (1) It is the almost indispen-
sable servant of text-books, furnishing pictures that surpass
the text in power to express ideas, feelings, and purposes. (2)
It is equally indispensable in oral instruction. Statistics show
that, all other things being equal, the school-teacher who under-
stands drawing surpasses his fellows in the power to interest
his pupils, and thus in the power to instruct. (3) It is an
indispensable equipment of artists, architects, surveyors, etc.
(4) The habits and tastes which drawing develops fit pupils
for better service in various vocations. " The Committee of
Fifteen" says, " It prepares the future workman for a more

346 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

useful and lucrative career, inasmuch as superior taste com-
mands higher wages in the finishing of all goods."

The Training of Teachers of Drawing. If drawing is
as important as just explained, it devolves on the public
schools to offer adequate courses. Teachers, accordingly, need
the following training : (1) Thorough training in drawing it-
self. Such training, as elsewhere stated, is needed in the art
as well as in the science of teaching drawing. Without such
proficiency the teaching of drawing is likely to be a soriy fail-
ure. (2) Thorough training in the principles and methods of
teaching drawing is necessary. Since this topic is the burden
of the present chapter, it is hoped that the matter may not
require further discussion.

MANUAL TRAINING 347

CHAPTER XII.

MANUAL TEAINING.

The pedagogics of manual training is concerned with (1)
The Nature of Manual Training, and (2) Instruction in Man-
ual Training.

A. THE NATURE OF MANUAL TRAINING.

" Manual training, in the strict sense of the term, would
mean simply the training of the hand ; but as currently used
with reference to education, the words indicate such employ-
ment of the hand as will at the same time train the eye to
accuracy and the mind to attention. The scientific element, or
the teaching of science pure and simple, is not necessarily in-
volved in the expression. As, however, pure science can
scarcely be taught without looking somewhat toward its appli-
cations, so manual training cannot be made an effective edu-
cational process except by constant reference to the broad
foundation in the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences
upon which it rests." Two subjects deserve our special atten-
tion : (1) The Tasks of Manual Training, and (2) The His-
tory of Manual Training.

The Tasks of Manual Training. In manual training, as
defined in the foregoing quotation, the pupil is taught how to
use hand- tools in the interests of the hand, eye, and mind.
This complex purpose implies (1) Instruction, and (2) Exer-
cises.

Manual- Training Studies. The manual-training pupil needs
very definite knowledge about the following things: (1) The
construction of hand-tools, (2) The uses to which these tools
are to be put, (3) The care which must be taken of hand-tools,

348 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

(4) The history of hand-tools, (5) The choice of materials
(paper, wood, metals) according to their qualities, and (6) Me-
chanical drawing, blue prints, etc.

Manual- Training Exercises. Inasmuch as manual training
aims at the correlation of the hand, the eye, and the mind, the
pupil must put all instructions into practice. Exercises in
construction must, therefore, be assigned. It is not enough
that in these exercises the pupil is required to draw what is
proposed for construction, and to measure off the proposed
parts : he must also be required to justify his choice of tools
and materials, and be held responsible for the condition of his
tools.

The History of Manual Training. " The principle of the
manual-training school exists in the kindergarten, and for
that principle we are indebted directly to Froebel, and indi-
rectly to Pestalozzi, Comenius, Rousseau, and Bacon. But it
was reserved for Russia to solve the problem of tool-instruc-
tion by the laboratory process, and make it the foundation of
a great reform in education. The initiatory step was taken in
1868 by M. Victor Delia- Yos, director of the Imperial Tech-
nical School of Moscow."

Manual Training in the United States. The Russian system
of manual trainins; soon found favor in America. Dr. John
D. Runkle, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology in 1876, was greatly pleased with the collection of
hand-tools and samples of shop-work which he saw in Phila-
delphia. He recommended the system, and it was adopted by
the famous Boston institution. " The second manual-training
school in this country was founded as a department of Wash-
ington University, St. Louis, Missouri, by Dr. C. M. Wood-
ward. The first class was graduated in June, 1883." "Con-
siderable progress in manual training has been made in the
State agricultural colleges of the country." " The most pro-
nounced success has been achieved at Purdue University, In-

MANUAL TRAINING 349

diana, under the directorship of Professor William F. M. Goss,
who graduated from the School of Mechanic Arts of the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology in 1879." The most compre-
hensive manual-training school in the world is Professor Felix
Adler's School in New York City. The Chicago Manual-
Training School, the first independent educational institution
of the kind in the world, was founded in 1883. Dr. Henry
H. Belfield was chosen the fi.rst director. The school was well
equipped from the beginning. It oiFers courses in ^' carpentry,
wood-turning, pattern-making, iron chipping and filing, forge-
work, brazing and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools,"
and in such other branches as seem to be necessary supple-
ments.

The State of Pennsylvania has welcomed manual training
into many of her schools. The system was introduced in the
Pennsylvania State College, experimentally, about twenty years
ago. It was an outgrowth of the Russian idea, and the course
is substantially that of the Chicago school. Manual training
was made a part of the course of study in Girard College,
Philadelphia, in 1882, and the experiment has proved a very
great success. The public schools of Philadelphia offer manual
training to all grades of pupils. " There are kindergartens
(sub-primaries) for children from three to six years of age, and
an industrial art department for all the students (of both sexes)
of the grammar schools. In this latter department the course
of training comprises ' drawing and design,' ' modelling,'
' wood-carving,' ' carpentry and joinery,' and ' metal-work.'
Special provisions have been made for boys of the Twelfth
grade, or any higher grade, provided the boys are fourteen
years of age." Dr. James MacAlister deserves the gratitude
of the city for his part in the adoption of the system.

Prospects. The prospects are that manual training will
gradually find a place in all the States of our country and in
all civilized nations. About twenty -five States have already

350 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

introduced the system in certain schools. (1) Among the great
cities that offer courses of manual training are Boston, New
Haven, Albany, New York, Philadelphia, St. Paul, and
Omaha. (2) The normal schools are almost unanimous in
adopting the manual system. (3) Among the colleges and
universities that offer extensive courses in manual training are
Pennsylvania State College, Lehigh University, Cornell, and
Atlanta. (4) Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh,
Toledo, and other cities offer excellent courses of manual
training to girls. (5) Although manual training in the public
schools of Europe can scarcely be called educational, since the
pupils usually make articles for household use, the purpose
therefore bemg purely industrial, and the mental culture re-
ceived the mere accident of a mechanical pursuit, yet there
are begiuning to be approaches to the Russian idea. This is
probably the tendency now in Denmark, France, Germany,
Norway, Sweden, etc. In Naas, in Sweden, there is a semi-
nary for the training of sloyd teachers. (6) The prospects of
our rural schools seem to be brightening. " It is sometimes
said that the boys and girls in the country schools have less
need of this kind of instruction than those of town or city
schools, for the reason that their daily employments about the
farm or in the household give them a readiness in perform-
ing common tasks which the less favored city boy seldom
acquires ; but while there is truth in this observation, it is also
true that the range of such employments is comparatively lim-
ited, and that they are not generally so conducted as to culti-
vate habits of precision and carefulness in the performance of
them. Systematic manual training would give to such boys
and girls a variety of exercises and of skills which only the
favored few can otherwise acquire. We believe that the nat-
ural aptitude for such exercises, fostered as it is by their cir-
cumstances, would produce even better practical results there
than in schools of the other kind. The case of Sweden fur-

MANUAL TRAINING 351

nishes most interesting evidence of the ease and success with
which such a system can be introduced into rural schools when
it is once undertaken, and the manifold advantages resulting
from it. But whatever may be the fact upon this point, it
requires but a moment's reflection to see that the most serious
obstacle to the introduction of such a system throughout the
entire system of schools is, at present, the lack of a sufficient
number of properly trained teachers." This obstacle can be
removed. " The experience of Sweden and of France show
conclusively that a body of teachers can be very rapidly
formed." " In Sweden it is found that an ordinary teacher,
by spending six weeks in one year and five weeks in the fol-
lowing year in a special course of manual training, can acquire
all that is necessary for teaching its elements successfully."
It is earnestly recommended (1) " That the law require every
district, in its subsequent erection of buildings for school pur-
poses, to make suitable provisions for a room or rooms to be
used for the purposes of manual training" ; and (2) " That
provision be made or authorized for the grouping of rural
schools, for purposes of manual training, in such a way that
either the scholars from schools included in each group may
go in sections from each school to some one conveniently lo-
cated, there to receive instruction in manual training, or that
a special instructor in manual training may be appointed,
whose time shall be assigned to each school in turn."

B. INSTRUCTION IN MANUAL TRAINING-.
The important features of instruction in manual training
may be conveniently studied under the following heads : (1)
The Courses of Manual Training ; (2) The Methods of In-
struction ; and (3) The Importance of Manual Training.

352 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

I. THE COURSES OF MANUAL TRAINING.

The ends in view and the pupil's possibilities suggest three
courses of manual training : (1) The Elementary (Imitative)
Course ; (2) The Intermediate (Kational) Course ; and (3) The
Higher (Special) Course. (See Principles of " Knowledge"
and " Instruction.")

The Elementary Course. The studies and exercises of
all the courses must be selected as means to ends.

Ends. The child learns to do a hundred things by doing
them long before it can understand the theory of the things.
It is economy in education to give all such lessons, not only
to gain so much time, but especially also to develop those fun-
damental ideas and judgments upon which to build subsequent
training for the hand, eye, and mind. These are the ends,
therefore, of the elementary course.

Elementary Studies and Exercises. In pursuit of the ends
in view, the first six years of the child's school-life may profit-
ably be devoted to the following course of studies and exer-
cises in manual training : (1) Exercises in kindergarten con-
structions and inventions. Beginners in school may lay
splints, build with blocks, plait, fold, weave, and model.
Many of these exercises can be combined as busy work with
other lessons. (2) Exercises in writing and drawing, as indi-
cated in the elementary courses (see pages 137, 335). There
should also be such elementary exercises in mechanical draw-
ing as may prepare the pupil for exercises with hand-tools.
(3) Exercises in the uses and care of simple hand-tools, such
as the jack-knife, hammer, gimlet, scissors, etc. In these ex-
ercises card-board and wood can be worked into various easy
structures. The purpose of training the mind in correlation
with the hand and eye should always be kept in mind. The
necessary place for work, and the appropriate materials and
tools, are not hard to supply.

MANUAL TRAINING 353

The Intermediate Course. Just as the ends of this course
are diflferent from those of the elementary course, so the studies
and exercises of the course must be.

Ends, The purposes of the intermediate course in manual
training are as follows : (1) To develop such manual skill as
should be common to the great mass of our population ; (2)
To add to such skill so much theory as may be necessary to
make tool-practice rational as well as mechanical ; and (3) To
make the course a supplementary means in the education of the
hand, eye, and mind. It should be possible to attain these
ends between the ages of twelve and sixteen, since the great
majority of pupils leave school at about sixteen years of
age.

Intermediate Studies and Exercises. In pursuit of the ends
in view, the following intermediate course of training is sug-
gested : (1) Drawing as proposed in the chapter on that sub-
ject (see pages 342, 343). (2) Paper sloyds and wood sloyds
of the geometrical forms, the construction to be preceded by
working drawings made by the pupil, and by the teacher's
written or printed directions as to the tools to be used and the
proper care ; (3) Exercises and studies in wood-carving, mod-
elling, carpentry and joinery, etc., according to the capacity
and time of the pupil. These tasks must be very carefully
graded. In carpentry and joinery, special attention should be
paid to working-drawings and judgment in the use of tools.
There should be simple exercises in hammering, chiselling,
squaring, halving, dovetailing, mortise and tenon work,
boring, planing, sawing, grooving, framing, gauging, bevel-
ling, dowelling, champfering, mitreing, wedging, sandpapering,
filing, etc. Theory should be combined with practice in such
proportion as may seem best for the particular pupil in ques-
tion. Two or three hours a week should be given to these
tasks.

Higher Courses in Manual Training. The special ends

23

354 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

in view in higher courses of manual training will, of course,
determine various distinct studies and exercises.

Ends. The following distinct purposes may be recognized
in higher courses of manual training : (1) To develop such
superior skill as may be desirable in our high-school pupils,
provisions for both sexes being made ; (2) To prepare pupils
for higher institutions just as they are prepared in other
studies ; (3) To prepare teachers to teach manual training
and to make such apparatus as they may need in teaching
other branches ; and (4) To equip men and women for special
vocations in the industrial world.

Higher Studies and Exercises. (1) In high schools the les-
sons in manual training will differ from the intermediate
course chiefly in their greater complexity, but also in the cor-
relation of various tasks with lessons in physics and mathe-
matics. (2) The manual-training tasks of preparatory schools
must be determined, as in case of other studies, by reference to
the curriculum of the higher institution for which preparation
is intended. (3) Normal schools should offer courses corre-
sponding to the work which ought to be expected of them in
the public schools, etc. In the interests of physiology, anatomy,
psychology, physics, color-work, etc., there should be courses
in chart-making, clay-modelling, photography, mechanical
drawing, etc. The greatest pains should be taken to make
the teacher's course an effective instrument in his own educa-
tion, and to fit him or her to teach manual training effectively.
(4) For outline of courses in higher institutions the reader is
respectfully referred to the catalogues of Pennsylvania State
College, Cornell University, Lehigh University, and the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology.

II. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN MANUAL TRAINING.

The features that are of special interest at this point may
conveniently be treated under the following heads : (1) Mate-

MANUAL TRAINING 355

rial Equipments ; (2) Preparation of Lessons ; and (3) Recita-
tion of Lessons.

Material Equipments. The introduction of manual train-
ing into our schools requires (1) a room suitably equipped
with work -benches, etc., (2) the tools adapted to the purposes
in hand, and (3) a supply of card-board, wood, etc.

The Manual- Training Room. In country districts economy
requires that a shop be fitted up in such a way as to accommo-
date pupils of all ages. In towns and cities a special labora-
tory should be provided for the schools of each grade, the
pupils of such schools coming for their lessons at set times,
and to a teacher in charge of such shops. Normal schools,
colleges, etc., require a series of rooms for courses in carpentry,
turnery, moulding, etc., the ends in view determining the
special provisions.

Manual- Training Tools. In district schools the common
hand-tools in carpentry, joinery, etc., must suffice. Inas-
much as the same shop can be made to suffice for the various
schools of one grade, towns and cities can affi^rd to purchase
a greater variety of tools. The special purposes of manual
training in normal schools and special schools must determine
the variety of tools to be used.

Working Materials. All manual-training laboratories must,
of course, be supplied with suitable paper for draAvings, blue
prints, sloyds, etc. ; with soft, medium, and hard wood, adapted
to the purposes in hand ; and with such other materials as
teachers may require.

Preparation of Manual-Training Lessons. Manual-
training lessons require preparation on the part of teachers
and pupils.

The Teacher's Preparation. (1) The working materials
must be selected and put into available shapes. The teacher
should also be perfectly familiar with the natural history, the
physical qualities, and industrial values of the materials to be

356 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

used in all lessons. (2) The ideal teacher of manual training
inspects his equipments daily, studies the powers of the tools
with which he must deal, and keeps every instrument in
working condition. (3) Every lesson should have a definite
end in view. The teacher must ascertain this end in the
present progress of the pupil, and plan such exercises as shall
serve as means to the end in view. The successive recitations
must hang well together, and constitute a perfect series from
the simple to the complex. To this end the lesson-plan must
so combine tools in various constructions as to develop the
highest manual skill in connection with the best training for
the eye and mind. (See Goss.)

The Pupil's Preparation. (1) It is not to be expected of
elementary pupils that they prepare assigned lessons, since
they need constant supervision. (2) Pupils of grammar
schools, high schools, and special schools must be required to
do various things between recitations. Normal-school stu-
dents, for example, should be required to prepare working-
drawings, blue-prints, etc., according to assigned problems,
and to finish charts for various pedagogical uses, paper-
sloyds, etc. The time and labor thus demanded of pupils
should not be too great, and proper differences should be ob-
served in masculine and feminine assignments.

Recitation of Manual-Training Lessons. The plan of
manual-training recitations is determined by the ends in view,
i.e., by the tasks of the various grades.

Elementary Recitation. Since the tasks of the elementary
grade are chiefly those of the kindergarten, drawing, form-
study, etc., the lessons must, of course, be imitative in essence.
In other words, the teacher illustrates and the pupils imitate.

Intermediate Lessons. (1) With intermediate pupils theory
must be combined with imitation. In other words, the teacher
must illustrate the use and care of the tools to be used, test
the pupils' knowledge of working materials, etc., point out

MANUAL TRAINING 357

sources of information, impart useful and interesting general
instruction, discipline the pupils' judgment, correct false ideas,
supervise exercises, etc. The best possible order should be
preserv^ed throughout these recitations. (2) Lessons to be
prepared should be definitely assigned, necessary suggestions
offered, etc. (3) In the interests of economy and discipline a
supply-account with pupils must be opened. (4) An effective
system of inspecting work done is indispensable. The teacher
must make sure that all work done by pupils in recitation
hours and between recitations is the pupils' own work. All
passing marks must be recorded in the pupil's favor. The
pupil must be made to recognize that absolute honesty is the
indispensable test of superior worth in manual-training attain-
ments.

III. THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING.

The interests of pedagogics require at least a brief notice
of the importance of manual training. Our reflections may
be summed up under the following heads : (1) Culture, (2)
Instruction, (3) Utility, and (4) The Training of Teachers.

The Culture-Value of Manual Training". The correla-
tion of the hand, eye, and mind, as required in educational
manual training, makes it one of the most effective instru-
ments in modern education. This correlation itself, as those
who understand the subject teach us, is one of the fundamen-
tal conditions of mental growth. The student of pedagogics
will find it easy to show that the whole pupil (intellect, feel-
ing, will, and body) is brought into effective service in the
various manual training lessons.

The Instruction- Value of Manual Training". As a sup-
plement of physics, pedagogics, and other studies, manual
training offers illustrations, confirms theories, and stimulates
scientific observations. The knowledge thus acquired, together
with its inspiration, is its own high reward.

368 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The Utility of Manual Training. From an industrial
stand-point manual training needs no apology. The history
of its introduction and progress is its sufficient defence.

The Training of Teachers of Manual Training. The
importance of manual training and its rapid introduction into
our schools call for trained teachers, and especially for teach-
ers trained in the pedagogics of the subject. (See Ham's
" Manual Training," " Bench "Work in Wood," by Goss, and
"Industrial Education," 1887-89, Pennsylvania Commis-
sion.

PHYSIOLOGY 359

CHAPTER XIII.

PHYSIOLOGY.

The pedagogics of physiology is concerned with two topics :
(1) The Nature of Physiology, and (2) Instruction in Phy-
siology.

A. THE NATURE OP PHYSIOLOGY.

Three general topics deserve our present attention : (1) The
Subject of Physiology ; (2) The Psychology of Physiology ;
and (3) The History of Physiology.

The Subject of Physiology. In the widest application
of the term physiology denotes the study of the organs, func-
tions, and health of the human body.

Organs of the Body. The body is a composite structure,
every part of which has some special office to perform. It is
in this sense of the term that we speak of the stomach, the
liver, the teeth, etc., as the organs of the body. In a very
general way the organs of the body may be classified as bones,
muscles, and nerves.

Functions of the Body. The work for which an organ of
the body is designed is termed its function. It is in this sense
that we speak of mastication, salivation, deglutition, digestion,
assimilation, etc. In a very general way the functions of the
body may be classified as locomotion, conservation, and sen-
sation.

Health of the Body. When all the organs of the body per-
form their offices effectively, so that life continues in perfec-
tion, the body is said to be healthy. The condition, as statis-
tics show, depends especially upon heredity, environment,
food, sleep, exercise, clothing, and mental life. The fact that
physical health has so much to do with our general success

360 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

makes the preservation of health and its improvement the
first concern of education.

The Psychology of Physiology. The learner becomes
acquainted with the facts of the body by observation, he dis-
covers the laws of his physical life by induction, and makes
these his rules of conduct by deduction.

The History of Physiology. The study of physiology
began in the earliest ages of the world, but it was not until
modern times that physiology became a branch of study in
our public schools. Its recent introduction into all the grades
of our schools is a great step in advance. The masses are
thus put into possession of knowledge that in the most prac-
tical sense is power indeed. The world at large is coming to
see the importance of such knowledge, and teachers are re-
quired to give the same evidence of physiological training
as of training in other branches.

B. INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY.

Teachers of physiology should understand the following
features of the work : (1) The Courses of Instruction ; (2)
The Methods of Instruction ; and (3) The Importance of
Physiology.

Courses of Physiology. The demands of culture and the
needs of life require three courses in physiology. The inter-
ests of general education require a common-school course in
physiology ; the needs of teachers and psychologists must be
supplied in special courses ; the medical profession needs as
extensive a course as can be found.

Common-School Physiology. (1) The common-school course
in physiology should begin in the pupil's earliest years and
continue through all grades. The first years should be de-
voted to such facts as children ought to know. The subjects
to be taught must be left to the teacher's judgment, though
elementary text-books should give direction to the teacher's

PHYSIOLOGY 361

choice of subjects. The obvious laws of the body, as well as
the facts, should be studied in grammar grades. The high
school should begin to inquire into complex features of physi-
cal life.

(2) The lessons of lower grades should be made as concrete
and attractive as possible. Pictures, drawings, charts, etc.,
will often be found very helpful, but books are out of place
in elementary physiology. Practical experiments should be
introduced in grammar grades, and a brief text-book should
be made the guiding thread of the lessons. Lessons should
be assigned, prepared, and recited. Two or three lessons of
twenty minutes each week will suffice. The pupil should be
led from facts to principles, and from principles to rules of
life. The study of physiology in high schools should be
made as thoroughly scientific as possible. In addition to the
regular work which is to be done in text-books, special
problems should be assigned to the pupils, the pupils making
original observations and arriving at independent conclusions.
Special lessons on stimulants, narcotics, poisons, and emer-
gencies are of the greatest importance.

Higher Physiology. (1) The teacher needs an extensive and
accurate training in physiology. The smatterer will teach
untruths and harm the cause of health. In addition to a
complete course in physiology, a thorough training in the
methods of teaching it is indispensable. (2) The study of
some phases of psychology is impossible apart from physi-
ology. The psychologist needs a sj)ecial training in the phy-
siology of the nervous system. (3) It is not within our
scope to go into details with regard to the physiology of the
medical profession.

III. IMPORTANCE OF PHYSIOLOGY.

The merits of physiology as a means in education are most
conveniently summed up under the following heads : (1) The

362 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Culture- Value of Physiology ; (2) The Instruction- Value of
Physiology ; and (3) The Life- Value of Physiology.

The Culture-Value of Physiology. The teacher who
understands his business can make physiology the means of
superior culture. The study of physiology is an ideal oppor-
tunity in the development of right habits of observation, in-
duction, and deduction. To be of any value all the observa-
tions must be accurate, and many conclusions at which the
pupil arrives by induction, as well as the life-rules at which
he arrives by deduction, must undergo continual correction.
Since the concrete welfare of the pupil is constantly at stake
in these necessities, they tend to develop not only the intellect
but also the heart and will.

The Instruction- Value of Physiology. As a consequence
of the close relation between the body and the mind, the
knowledge of the body is often a preparation toward a better
understanding of the mind. Many of the mysteries of life
so dreadful to the uninitiated disappear in the light of physi-
ology.

The Life-Value of Physiology. The study of physiology
tends to save life, to promote health and happiness, to improve
mental and physical labor, and to decrease immorality.

PHYSICAL CULTUEE 363

CHAPTER XIV.

PHYSICAL CULTUEE.

The pedagogics of physical culture has to do with two gen-
eral problems : (1) The Nature of Physical Culture, and (2)
Instruction in Physical Culture.

A. THE NATURE OF PHYSICAL CULTURE.

An exhaustive inquiry into the nature of physical develop-
ment is impossible at this point. Two topics, however, de-
serve our attention : (1) The Necessity of Physical Culture,
and (2) The History of Physical Culture.

The Necessity of Physical Culture. The instinctive
prompting to play disappears when the body matures ; its
mission has then been performed. It must, however, not be
inferred that when the body has arrived at its maturity phy-
sical activity is no longer necessary. In this matter, as in
others, the guardianship of the body is merely transferred
from instinct to reason. Inquiry into the process of physical
life confirms this theory. The process of physical life consists
of two complementary processes commonly denoted by the
terms assimilation and elimination, and this complementary
relation must be maintained in maturity as well as in the
stages of development. The agencies in the maintenance of
this complementary relation are nutrition and repair, muscu-
lar activity, and neurosis. The remarkable thing in this
complex agency is the fact that muscular activity is the indis-
pensable condition of nutrition and repair and of normal
neurosis. (See Physiology.) A system of muscular exercises
must, accordingly, be devised for the development and health
of the body.

364 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The Relation of the Body and Mind, The mind, as psycho-
physics teaches, is in the closest sympathy with the body.
Abnormal neurosis is always a mental misfortune. The
mental life of a person whose physical health is perfect is
generally also normal, and much of a man's success can often
be traced directly to a fine physical system. Accordingly, the
importance of physical culture is to be measured not only by
its physical, but also by its intellectual and moral conse-
quences.

The History of Physical Culture. Systematic physical
culture probably attained its highest possibilities in ancient
times. The preservation of nations then depended very much
upon physical prowess in personal combat, as in Greece and
Eome. Then, too, Greece "paid so much attention to pure
gymnastics because the beautiful was worshipped as the highest
manifestation of the divine." The ascetic misconception of
the relation of the body and mind led the Middle Ages to
despise the body and ignore its just claims. It was not until
Locke's time that educators began to understand the true
relation of the body and mind. The Philanthropinists laid
great stress on physical culture. The "new" education, ac-
cepting the teachings of Christ and the conclusions of physio-
logical psychology, has for some years squarely faced the
problem of physical culture in our schools. The recent intro-
duction of pliysiology into the schools, and the provisions
made by normal schools and special schools for the training
of teachers, will do much toward the intelligent general intro-
duction of physical culture. The old prejudice against the
body is fast disappearing from the minds of the general pub-
lic, as may be seen in the increased interest of all classes in
gymnasiums and athletics. The time is fast approaching
when we shall require all teachers to give as much evidence
of their fitness to teach physical culture as reading and arith-
metic. It is to be hoped, however, that in the almost violent

PHYSICAL CULTURE 365

reaction in favor of the body the American people may not
prostitute pliysical culture to the interests of brute force and
acrobatic show.

B. INSTRUCTION IN PHYSICAL CULTURE.

In order to do effective work in physical culture the teacher
must understand, (1) Classification of Exercises ; (2) Princi-
ples of Physical Culture ; (3) Courses of Exercises ; (4)
Methods of Instruction ; (5) The Adoption of a System ; and
(6) The Importance of Physical Culture.

Classification of Pliysical Exercises. The most conve-
nient and therefore the most appropriate classification of phy-
sical exercises is the common division into (1) Lower-Limb
Movements ; (2) Upper- Limb Movements ; and (3) Trunk
Movements. Some exercises belong purely to only one of
these classes, others are a combination of two classes, while
many of the best exercises belong partly to all classes.

Lower-Limb Movements. Among the common exercises for
the lower limbs are walking, running, jumping, and leaping.
Swimming, bicycling, base-ball, and foot-ball involve espe-
cially the lower limbs, but belong at the same time to the
other classes.

Upper-Limb Movements. Among the common exercises for
the arms are swinging, lifting, and throwing. Indian clubs
or dumb-bells may be added to the swinging movements.
Exercises with poles, bars, chest- weights, etc., as well as
climbing and carrying, are complex forms of lifting. Balls,
quoits, nine-pins, etc., are convenient in throwing.

Trunk Movements. Among the common exercises for the
trunk are swimming, riding, and boxing. Since these move-
ments are generally impossible, substitutions must be found.
The most convenient substitutes are breathing exercises, imi-
tations of rowing, systematic bendings of the body, and imi-
tation boxing. These exercises are commonly combined with

366 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

others meant more especially for the upper and lower limbs
and for the neck.

Principles of Physical Culture. In physical culture, as
in other studies, the courses of exercises and the methods of
work should be selected as means to ends. A knowledge of
the following principles is essential to intelligent selection in
these matters.

1. The right ideal in physical culture is to develop the body
into the best instrument of life.

In the statement of this principle the term life is to be taken
in its largest sense, the sense in which it was used in the Fifth
General Principle of Education (page 39). To be the best
instrument of life in the largest sense, the body must have
health, strength, skill, and grace. (1) Health is the condition
of normal mental life, as set forth in the first part of this chap-
ter. (2) Strength is the indispensable equipment of labor and
endurance. (3) Skill, the ability to do a thing quickly and
well, is an economic advantage without which no one can suc-
cessfully compete in the arts of life. (4) Grace, it is true, is
not a physical necessity. It is, however, a great social advan-
tage, and as such often has practical and moral consequences.
Moreover, there is conscious happiness in the possession of a
fine body, especially when this possession is combined with
the best refinements.

In order that health, strength, skill, and grace may prove a
blessing the body must be made the servant of intelligence,
refinement, and highest purposes. Apart from right habits
of subordination, physical advantages often prove to be a
curse.

2. It is through corresponding exercises in muscular contrac-
tions and expansions that all desirable physical virtues must be
developed.

Since contraction and expansion are the only possibilities of
muscular activity, all the possibilities of physical culture must

PHYSICAL CULTURE 367

lie along these lines. It is through obedience to the laws of
habit that the possibilities of physical culture must be realized.
In other words, the exercises of any system of physical cul-
ture should be exercises in those things which are to become
the virtues of the body. Accordingly, health must be devel-
oped through normal use of the organs in question, strength
can be developed only by a long course of strong contractions
and expansions, skill results from practice in rapid move-
ments, and grace is the reward of cultivated self-possession
in muscular movements. The will must be required to sub-
ordinate all exercises to the dictates of intelligence and re-
finement.

(3) The natural stages of development must be respected in
physical culture.

Experiment seems to show that the natural series of play-
interests is a manifestation of the trend of the needs of the
maturing body. It has also been proved that the series of the
pupil's possibilities coincides with the series of his interests
and needs. Thus we learn that in order to adapt exercises to
individual pupils the teacher must study individual interests.
Inasmuch as there is a general similarity of individual interests,
a true system of exercises can be founded upon the general
trend of play-interests. The earlier physical movements are
generally imitative, the later ones rational and original. A
thread of concentrations, each emphasis being the centre of cor-
relations, seems to run through both the imitative and the
rational series of the physical activities of the body. In other
words. Nature seems to have special epochs of development
for the various parts of the body, but will not, while laying
stress on any particular part, neglect the other parts of the
body. The parts to which Nature attends successively are
those which seem to fall behind in the race of symmetrical
development. This suggestion of Nature must ever, there-
fore, be the teacher's guide in dealing with individual pupils.

368 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Courses of Exercises. The following outline is based
upon the principles of physical culture, and is designed to be
a guide to teachers :

Courses of Exercises.

I. Imitation Course.

1. Contractions and expansions of leg muscles.

(1) Normal.

(2) Strong.

(3) Quick.

(4) Graceful.

2. Contractions and expansions of arm muscles.

Same as above.

3. Contractions and expansions of body muscles.

Same as above.

II. Rational Course.

1. Complex contractions of muscles.

2. The physiology of exercises.

III. Professional Course.

1 . Superior attainments in muscular culture.

2. The theory of physical culture.

3. The pedagogics of physical culture. *

The Method of Instruction. In ideal instruction the
recitation presupposes preparation. These two topics deserve
our attention. (See Principles.)

Preparation in Physical Culture. (1) The possibilities for
good or evil are so great in physical exercises that the teacher
must make the very best preparations. He should choose
exercises as means to definite ends in the system which he
may have adopted. The ability to illustrate the exercises to be
assigned is indispensable in the imitative course. The physi-

* The first course is suitable for lower grades, tlie second for high schools,
and the third for normal and special schools.

PHYSICAL CULTUEE 369

ology of the proposed exercises should be thoroughly mastered
before recitation. The plan of the recitation, its steps and
details, should be mastered in the most definite sense. (2) In
the imitative course the pupil's preparations must consist
mainly of repetitions of exercises with which the pupil has
become familiar. In the rational course the pupil must also
be required to study regularly assigned lessons on the physi-
ology of exercises already practised or of those to be used in
the next recitation. In the professional course the require-
ments of the rational course must be variously supplemented
with special reference to the pedagogics of the subject.

The Recitation in Physical Culture. (1) In the imitative
course the recitation must consist of observation and imita-
tion. In other words, the teacher must illustrate the move-
ments to be taught ; the pupil must observe and imitate. The
movements should be repeated until the ends in view have
been attained, but the pupil's strength and patience must never
be taxed too severely. (2) In the rational course the reci-
tation may consist partly of theory and partly of practice, or
separate periods may be devoted to each. The recitation in
theory will resemble a recitation in physiology. The recita-
tion in movements must consist of commands and obedience.
In other words, the teacher states what is to be done, illus-
trates complex requirements, commands successive movements
of strength, rapidity, and grace, while the pupils promptly
obey every order to the best of their ability. Prompt obe-
dience is of utmost importance as a means in subordinating
the body to the mind and as a training in concerted moral
actions. (3) The recitation plans of the professional course in
physical culture are practically the same as those of the inter-
mediate course.

Adoption of a System. In our times the teacher has
many alternatives from which to select a system of exercises
for a school. Among the best systems of physical culture are

24

370 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

the Swedish, the military, and the Preece systems. Probably
the Swedish and the military systems should be combined in
higher courses to produce the best results. The best system
for public schools is the Preece system; it aims at proper
physical habits and is decidedly moral and sesthetic. The
most gratifying results have been obtained in many cities.
The Preece manual for teachers, published by C. W. Bardeen,
Syracuse, New York, is very complete, and deserves a place
in every teacher's library.

The Importance of Physical Culture. Systematic phy-
sical culture is not absolutely necessary in country districts
where pupils find many opportunities outside of school hours
to develop their bodies, and yet there are reasons why such
a system as the Preece or the Swedish should be introduced
into every rural school. Improper habits of walking, stand-
ing, sitting, breathing, etc., are alarmingly common even in
the rural schools. In towns and cities systematic physical
culture seems indispensable. Opportunities for playing, etc.,
are harder to find, school grounds are often quite too small,
and the out-door hours too few. In the interests of body,
mind, and morals, city schools and town schools should adopt
some system of physical culture. (See jSTecessity of Physical
Culture.)

SINGING 371

CHAPTER XY.

SINGING.

The problems with which the pedagogics of singing is con-
cerned are as follows : (1) The Nature of Singing, and (2)
Instruction in Singing.

A. THE NATURE OF SINGING.

The necessary knowledge of the subject to be taught is the
first concern of the ideal teacher. It is assumed that in the
case of singing the teacher should understand the following
phases of the subject : (1) The Production of Tones ; (2) The
Representation of Tones ; (3) Reading ; and (4) The History
of Singing.

The Production of Tones. In singing we have to do
with sounds just as in painting we have to do with colors.
These sounds of the voice are termed Tones. The tones in
question are the results of physical vibration, and they differ
in the number of necessary vibrations, in extent of time, in
quality of voice, in stress of voice, etc. The production of
tones is therefore concerned with (1) Pitch, (2) Time, (3)
Quality, (4) Force, etc.

Pitch. The distinction of higher and lower tones is termed
Pitch. In the production of tones of definite pitch, the mind
is not conscious of the number of necessary vibrations of the
vocal chords, but only of such vocal coordination as will re-
sult in the desired pitch. This coordination consists of differ-
ence in the tension of the vocal chords, and depends for much
of its success on faithful practice. For fuller explanation the
reader is referred to Natural Philosophy.

372 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Time. The prolongation of a tone is termed its Time.
Thus, we speak of long and short tones, of slow and quick
time. Two things are necessary in the production of tones of
definite length, namely, control of the vocal chords and
judgment in the measure of the tones in question. As in the
case of pitch, practice tends to make perfect.

Quality. The differences of voice denoted by the words
sweet, mellow, brilliant, etc., are termed Quality, or Tim-
bre. Some of these qualities are voluntary possibilities;
others are individual differences over which the persons
in question have almost no power. Systematic voice-cult-
ure will, however, do much to improve the qualities of any
voice.

Faroe. The differences of stress denoted by the words soft,
medium, loud, etc., are termed Force. The variations in
question are voluntary possibilities limited only by the physical
powers of the singer.

Rhythm. In a metrical succession of tones the system of
accent and time is termed Ehythm. The word "time" is
often synonymous with " rhythm." Thus, when we speak of
" three-fourths" time we mean a succession of tones in which
three "quarter" notes (or equivalents) form the measures
regularly with one accent to each measure and in regular
position. It thus follows that rhythm is a derivative of time
and force.

Melody. Rhythmical succession of single tones is termed
Melody. The word " tune" is a popular substitute, as in the
sentence, " He cannot keep a tune."

Harmony. Simultaneous tones of such difference in pitch
as satisfies the aesthetic sense are said to be Harmonious.
One pulse of such harmony is termed a Chord. The syste-
matic construction of successive chords is termed Composition.
The fundamental pitch in melody and composition is termed
the Key. Systematic progress from the key is termed the

SINGING 373

Scale. Change of key in melody and composition is termed
Transposition. *

The Representation of Tones. In singing as a species
of language there are three logical steps : (1) The production
of tones, the visible representation of tones, and the produc-
tion of tones thus represented to the eye. It is with the
second task that we have to do at this point.

Necessity. The necessity of visible representation of tones
appears from two considerations : (1) Apart from such repre-
sentation song would generally perish with its first produc-
tion, and (2) The visible representation of tones is an indis-
pensable means in the pupil's education.

Method. All methods of representing tones to the eye
have their basis in psychophysics, and the historic develop-
ment of such methods is subject to the accidents of invention.
In their fuller aspects these considerations belong to the his-
tory of music. It is with the conventional method of repre-
sentation that we are concerned at this point. (1) Diiference
in " pitch" is generally represented to the eye by means of
differences in distance from a base line. On the conventional
" staff" the pitch in question is denoted by the letters c, d, e,
etc., or by the figures 1, 2, 3, etc., or by the names do, re, mi,
etc., or by the shapes of the notes employed, " Melody" and
its development in " composition" are generally represented
by progress from left to right on the staff, probably in imita-
tion of our modes of " writing." The " key" of a melody or
composition is generally denoted by means of so-called " flats
and sharps." The " scale" consists of a natm'al " octave" of
tones and its repetition. Letters, names, etc., are employed in

* Those features of tone-production which may he summed up under
the head of "pronunciation," although of the highest importance to ar-
tistic singing, constitute the special domain of " Voice Culture," whose
purpose it is to develop such vocal technique as may completely express
the mental states of the singer.

374 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

its description. (2) Difference ia " time" is generally repre-
sented to the eye by means of differences in the form of the
" notes." (3) Differences in " quality '^ and " force" are gener-
ally represented to the eye by means of technical terms or
equivalent signs, as con expresdone, pianissimo, p, /, etc. (4)
" Rhythm" is represented to the eye by means of the divi-
sion of the " staff" into " measures" composed somewhat reg-
ularly of longer and shorter tones, the " theme" of a song
determining whether the measures are to be iambs, trochees,
anapests, dactyls, or some other arrangement. Difference in
rhythmic speed is indicated on the staff by means of technical
marks, as in the case of " quality" and " force." Artistic pro-
nunciation is supervised by similar means.

Reading-. In its entirety " singing from notes" consists of
two complementary phases in the following order : (1) Instruc-
tion, and (2) Eendition.

Instruction. The process of "singing from notes" begins
with the singer's mental construction of the " tune" repre-
sented on the " staff." The conditions of success in this pro-
cess are (1) the singer's mastery of the system of representa-
tion, and (2) the power to construct mentally that which is
represented physically. The former task is possible for the
common mind ; the latter is the prerogative of talent.

Rendition. Oral construction begins where instruction ends,
and completes the process of " singing from notes," inasmuch as
it is the mind's mode of expressing its contents and conveying
its moral messages. The conditions of great success are (1)
intellectual mastery of means, (2) spirituality, and (3) exercise.

The History of Singing. The purpose in hand forbids
extensive reference to the history of singing. The subject,
however, demands some attention. The " place" which sing-
ing now occupies in our schools will be better understood by
reference to its history. The following topics will, therefore,
be briefly considered : (1) The development of singing as a

SINGING 376

study ; (2) Its institutional services ; and (3) Its introduction
into schools.

The Evolution of Singing. Simple melody, without nice
discrimination between the difFeieut degrees of pitch, was prob-
ably the limit of musical attainment for a long period of time
in the earliest history of the race. " The Greeks reduced
musical intervals to mathematical ratios, introduced the chro-
matic scale, and distinguished the major and minor intervals
in the diatonic scale." Harmony was born much later. " In
the sixteenth century music was cultivated with great devotion
and success in Italy." Oratorios and operas were the fruits
of this devotion. " Operatic music culminated in Italy in
Kossini of the present century." Then followed the German
masters, Haydn, Weber, and others. France was not far be-
hind, and produced such men as Auber, Meyerbeer, and Hal-
evy. England and English singers come last in the list of
great eflPorts in the history of music.

The Institutional Services of Singing. Singing, like its in-
strumental associate, has ever been the welcome guest of society,
the indispensable handmaid of religious worship, the spirit of
valor in war, the divinest ideal of art, and a mighty friend of
education. The most ancient as well as the most modern
peoples have held music in the highest esteem. (See General
History and History of Education.)

The History of Singing in Schools. Probably all civilized
nations paid some attention to singing in schools. Among
the Oriental nations the Egyptians and the Jews laid great
stress on singing as means of culture. Singing was an essen-
tial element in the schools of Greece, and Greek philosophers
bad much to say about the merits of music. Rome followed
somewhat in the footsteps of Greece. Singing belonged to the
curriculum of the early Christian schools, and was the queen
of the celebrated seven " liberal arts" of the Middle Ages.
Modern education has given an honorable place to singing.

376 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

In Germany, France, and other European states singing lias
become a common-school study. America is ready to make
singing a common-school study. In many cities singing is
taught as systematically as reading and writing. The normal
schools offer suitable courses in singing, and school boards are
waking up to the importance of singing as a means in educa-
tion. The prospects are that singing will become a universal
study in our schools.

B. INSTRUCTION IN SINGINQ.

The special pedagogical interests of singing are conveniently
considered under the following heads : (1) The Necessary
Courses ; (2) Singing in the Pu])lic Schools ; and (3) The
Importance of Singing.

I. COURSES IN SINGING.

The nature of singing, together with the requirements of
culture and the demands of life, determine the courses of
singing. (See Principles.) But since the requirements of the
subject and of culture are satisfied by progress from the simple
to the complex, etc., in the development of lessons, only the
demands of " life" deserve special consideration at this point.
The following topics accordingly deserve attention : (1) Sing-
ing for the Masses ; (2) The Course of Singing for Teachers ;
and (3) The Course for Specialists in Singing.

Singing for the Masses. Instruction in singing should
begin in the concrete, i.e., with simple melodies. The songs for
children, as Froebel suggests, should be selected with special
reference to their value as a means in the general culture and
discipline of the pupil. The nature of singing requires that
the first technical instruction should consist of exercises in (1)
pitch and the natural scale, (2) time and simple rhythm, (3)
timbre, and (4) force. Exercises in representation and reading
should be combined with lessons on pitch, rhythm, time, etc.,

SINGING 377

almost from the beginning. Sharps and flats should be first
introduced in connection with simple melody. A course in
singing from notes and in voice-culture should follow a course
in chords and part songs. If singing deserves a place in
common schools, it deserves the place as a means of culture,
as a source of happiness, and as a means in life. (See Fifth
General Principle of Education.) It is, therefore, of the ut-
most importance in mapping out a course of singing for the
common schools to inquire into the moral, aesthetic, and prac-
tical value of the course. The importance of singing in
homes, society, church, etc., should not be forgotten.

The Course of Singing for Teachers. Since the power
of imitation is the pupil's first great possibility in the arts,
economy requires that teachers of singing take as thorough a
course in singing as possible. The teacher of singing should,
of course, know more than he will be required to illustrate.
As a stimulus to artistic teaching the teacher needs a course
of training in " composition" and " voice." A course of
reading in musical literature is of great importance. In addi-
tion to the course in singing, the teacher needs a thorough
training in the principles and methods of teaching singing.

The Course for Specialists in Singing. The purpose in
hand does not require extensive reference to higher courses in
the divine art of singing. It will suffice at this point to call
attention to the extended courses in " voice" (including the
physical technique as well as the " soul" training), in " thor-
ough bass," etc., which are possible for those whose capacity
and opportunity warrant the attempts. Those courses, of
course, constitute the domain of technical schools.

II. SINGING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

The problems with which we are especially concerned at
this point are : (1) The Preparation of Lessons, and (2) The
Recitation in Singing.

378 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The Preparation of Lessons. An ideal school requires
preparation on the part of both teachers and pupils.

The Teacher's Preparation. It is not enough that the
teacher of singing has taken a course in singing and the peda-
gogics of singing. The best teachers believe in " daily study"
as a source of inspiration, power, and economy. It is of the
utmost importance that the teacher of singing fix upon some
special " end" for each recitation, that he plan the necessary
steps before the recitation, that he select the best means
(black-board, charts, etc.), and that he settle upon the most
effective method of using his means in the attainment of his
ends.

The PupiVs Preparation. (1) Formal preparation of les-
sons is not to be expected of beginners in singing. (2) When
pupils in singing are old enough to study " notes" formally,
lessons may be assigned as in other branches. (3) In higher
and special courses the teacher must, of course, insist on prac-
tice between recitations.

The Recitation in Singing. The nature of the subject
determines the tasks of the recitation in singing, while the
needs of the pupil determine the right method of work.

Tashs of the Recitation in Singing. Lessons on pitch, scales,
time, melody, representation, reading, etc., must consist of (1)
instruction to reach the pupil's intellect and feelings, and (2)
exercises for the pupil's voice and will. In the accomplish-
ment of the former task the teacher is subject to the principles
of ordinary instruction ; in the latter he is subject to the law
of the formation of " habit," inasmuch as voice-culture con-
sists essentially in forming right habits of voluntary utter-
ance.

The Recitation Method in Singing. (1) The scientific
method of instruction is as applicable to singing as to other
studies. The pupil learns the facts of pitch, time, force, rep-
resentation, etc., by " observation" ; he passes from facts to

SINGING 379

laws by " induction," and back to practical methods by " de-
duction." (2) In the development of right habits of pitch,
force, etc., the pupil must be required to do whatever is to be-
come habit until it actually becomes liabit. These necessary
repetitions must be so varied and adapted to the interests of
the pupil as not to weary him. A skilful use of the black-
board, charts, part songs, etc., will generally succeed in sus-
taining the pupil's interest, (3) The lessons should be as con-
crete as possible for elementary classes ; representation (staif,
notes, etc.) may lead in higher classes ; fine technique is the
final concern in singing. (4) Among the best systems of " no-
tation" are those employed in the " Normal Music Course,"
published by Silver, Kogers & Co., 50 Bromfield Street, Bos-
ton. For detailed instruction on " method" the reader is
referred to the " Teachers' Manual" of this course, or to the
Mason System, published by Ginn & Co., Boston.

III. IMPOETANCE OF SINGING.

Singing has long been regarded as a valuable educational
means.

The Culture-Value of Singing. A course in singing
tends to develop the whole pupil. (1) " It brings a valuable
contribution to physical development by fortifying the lungs
and giving suppleness to all the vocal organs. These organs
are less liable to the many grave maladies which might affect
them, especially in early years, if they have been subjected
to regular exercise." (2) " By this means we provide for the
education of the ear ; we cultivate and refine a sense which
along with vision plays a preeminent part in the intellectual
existence of the child." Singing affords fine opportunities for
the cultivation of memory, imagination, and thought. (3) Its
effects on the sensibilities are very remarkable. This is due
fundamentally to its rhythm, by means of which all species
of emotion can be combined with thoughts and transformed

380 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

into volitions. The mind tends to express its sweetest senti-
ments and its loftiest aspirations in song. Singing touches the
heart as almost nothing else can do, and thus becomes the
vehicle of social, patriotic, moral, and religious influence.
These moral possibilities make it important to admit within
the school only the works of a pure and exalted sentiment,
and, as much as possible, the productions of the great masters.

The Instruction- Value of Singing. The knowledge of
pitch, time, qualities of voice, force, rhythm, melody, and
harmony is virtually a partial conquest of such branches as
reading, poetry, etc. This knowledge is also to be desired for
its own sweet sake as a source of happiness. It may thus
become for young people the most powerful preservative against
the dangers of other pleasures.

The Disciplinary Value of Singing. The child loves
music. Singing is, therefore, " one of the surest and most sal-
utary means of discipline which can be employed." A song
introduced at the right moment into a sleepy, languid school,
or it may be into one agitated and disturbed, acts like elec-
tricity. " Music has the gift of calming children, and at the
same time of urging them to activity by an agreeable excita-
tion." Rhythm promotes self-control in physical movements,
develops unity of action in large numbers, and stimulates good
mood. It is an excellent recreation, giving repose from serious
studies, and preparing the spirit of the pupils for subsequent
tasks.

APPENDIX.

381

APPENDIX.

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL
READING.

PSYCHOLOGY.

1. A Primer of Psychology. Titchener. Macmillan.

2. The New Psychology. Scripture. Charles Scribner's Sons. \ .

3. Thinking, Feeling, Doing. Scripture. Chautauqua Press.

4. Mental Faculty. Warner. University Press.

5. The Growth of the Brain. Donaldson. Charles Scribner's Sons.

6. Education of the Central Nervous System. Halleck. Macmillan.

7. Principles of Psychology. James. Henry Holt & Co.

8. Studies of Childhood. Sully.

9. The Study of the Child. Taylor. D. Appleton & Co.

10. The Study of Children. Warner. Macmillan.

11. The Development of the Child. Oppenheim. Macmillan.

12. Three Years of Childhood. Perez. G. W. Bardeen.

13. Psychology in Education. Roark. American Book Company.

14. Application of Psychology to Teaching. Hailman. Small.

15. Psychologic Foundations of Education. Harris. D. Appleton

&Co.

16. Apperception. Lange. D. C. Heath & Co.

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING.

1. Leonard and Gertrude. Pestalozzi. D. C. Heath & Co.

2. Emile. Rousseau. D. C. Heath & Co.

3. Education of Man. Froebel. A. Lovell & Co.

4. Lectures to Kindergartners. Peabody. D. C. Heath & Co.

5. Evolution of Dodd. Smith. Eand, McNally & Co.

6. Education. Spencer. Educational Publishing Company.

7. Philosophy of Education. Rosenkranz. Appleton & Co.

383

384 APPENDIX

8. Philosophy of Education. Tate. C. W. Bardeen.

9. Philosophy of Teaching. Tompkins. Ginn & Co.

10. Science of Education. Herhart. D. 0. Heath & Co.

11. Outlines of Pedagogics. Rein. C. W. Bardeen.

12. Studies in Pedagogy. Morgan. Silver, Burdett & Co.

13. A Manual of Pedagogics. Putnam. Silver, Burdett & Co.

14. Essentials of Method. De Oarmo. D. C. Heath & Co.

15. Lectures on Teaching. Joseph Payne. E. L. Kellogg & Co.

16. True Order of Studies. Hill. G. P. Putnam's Sons.

17. School Economy. Wickersliam. J. E. Lippincott Company.

METHODS OF TEACHING.

Arithmetic.

1. Grube Method of Arithmetic. Seely. E. L. Kellogg & Co.

2. Psychology of Number. Dewey.

3. Philosophy of Arithmetic. Brooks. Normal Publishing Com-

pany.

4. Elements of Pedagogy. White. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co.

5. Normal Methods of Teaching. Brooks.

Composition.

1. Language Lessons. Barnes. American Book Company.

2. Elementary Lessons in English, Parts I. and II. Knox. Ginn

&Co.

3. Practical Lessons in Language. Conklin. American Book Com-

pany.

4. How to Write English. Beade. J. B. Lippincott Company.

5. Hand-Book of Punctuation. Turner. J. B. Lippincott Company.

6. Every-Day Errors of Speech. Meredith. J. B. Lippincott Com-

pany.

7. How to "Write Clearly. Abbott. Eoberts Brothers.

8. Analysis of Letter Writing. Townsend. American Book Com-

pany.

9. Elements of Rhetoric and Composition. Hill. Sheldon & Co.

10. Composition and Rhetoric. Quackenbos. American Book Com-

pany.

11. Early English Pronunciation. Ellis.

12. History of English Sounds. Sweet.

13. Primer of English Verse. Corson. Ginn & Co.

14. Nature of Poetry. Stedman. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

15. Hand-Book of Poetics. Gummere. Ginn & Co.

APPENDIX 385

16. English Poets. Ward.

17. English Literature. Tenbrinks.

18. Shorter History of English Literature. Saintsbury.

Drawing.

1. Elements of Drawing Simplified. Augsburg. Educational Pub-

lishing Company.

2. System of Drawing. White. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co.

3. System of Drawing. Montgomery. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor

& Co.

4. Mechanical Drawing. Cross. Ginn & Co.

Geography.

1. The Child and Nature. Frye. Ginn & Co.

2. Brooks and Brook Basins. Frye. Ginn & Co.

3. Teachers' Manual of Geography. Frye. Ginn & Co.

4. Teacher's Manual of Geography. Eedway. D. C. Heath & Co.

5. Elements of Pedagogy. White. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co.

6. Geographical Studies. Ritter. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co.

7. Comparative Geography. Ritter. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co.

8. Physiography. Huxley. London, 1881.

GrarriTnar.

1. Simple Grammar of English. Earle. Putnams.

2. English Grammar and Composition. Reed and Kellogg. Clark

& Maynard.

3. English Grammar. Lyte. American Book Company.

4. English Grammar. Welsh. American Book Company.

5. English Grammar. BaskervUl and Sewell. American Book Com-

pany.

6. English Grammar. West. University Press.

7. Principles of English Grammar. Carpenter. Macmillan.

8. Essentials of English Grammar. Whitney. Ginn & Co.

9. Grammar Land. Nesbitt. Holt & Co.

10. The English Language. Meiklejohn. D. C. Heath & Co.

11. History of English. Champney. Macmillan.

History.

1. Stories of Pennsylvania. Walton and Brumbaugh. American

Book Company.

2. American Indians. Starr. D. C. Heath & Co.

25

386 APPENDIX

3. History of the United States. Morris. J. B. Lippincott Com-

pany.

4. Historical Tales. Morris. J. B. Lippincott Company.

5. Advanced History of the United States. Morris. J. B. Lippin-

cott Company.

6. How to Kemember History. Shaffer. J. B. Lippincott Company.

7. Methods of Historical Study. Freeman. London, 1886.

8. Methods of Teaching and Studying History. Hall. D. C. Heath

&Co.

9. Aids to Teaching of General History. Sheldon. Heath & Co.

10. History of Civilization. Guizot.

11. Philosophy of History.

Manual Training.

1. First Lessons in Wood- Working. Compton. American Book

Company.

2. Knife Work in the School Koom. Kilhon. M. Bradley Com-

pany.

3. Elementary Wood- Work. Kilhon. Lee & Shepard.

4. Wood- Work in the Common School. Hinckley. M. Bradley

Company.

5. The Sloyd System of Wood- Work. Hoffman. American Book

Company.

6. Wood- Work. Barter. Macmillan.

7. Exercises in Wood- Working. Sickels. D. Appleton & Co.

8. Bench Work in Wood. Goss. Giim & Co.

9. How to Use Wood- Working Tools. Whitaker. D. C. Heath & Co.

10. Industrial Instruction. Seidel. D. C. Heath & Co.

11. Pennsylvania Commission of Industrial Education. Edwin K.

Myers.

12. Commissioner of Labor. {Eighth Annual Report.) Government

Printing OflSce.

13. Manual Training. Ham. Harper & Brothers.

14. Educational Value of Manual Training. Woodward. D. C. Heath

&Co.

Mental Culture.

1. Mental Science and Culture. Brooks. Normal Publishing Com-

pany, Lancaster, Pennsylvania.

2. Self-Culture. Blackie. Charles Scribner's Sons.

3. Habit in Education. Radestock. D. C. Heath & Co.

4. Memory. Kay. D. Appleton & Co.

APPENDIX 387

Object Lessons.

1. Primary Object Lessons. Calkins. American Book Company.

2. Common Minerals and Rocks. Crosby. D. C. Heath & Co.

3. First Book of Botany. Youmans. D. Appleton & Co.

4. Natural History Object Lessons. Ricks. D. C. Heath & Co.

5. Child's Book of Nature. Hooker. American Book Company.

6. Color in the School-Room. Bradley. Milton Bradley Company.

7. Longman's Object Lessons. {Hints and Notes.) Longmans, Green

&Co.

8. First Steps in Scientific Knowledge. Bert. J. B. Lippincott

Company.

9. Primer of Scientific Knowledge. Bert. J. B. Lippincott Com-

pany.
10. Studies in Nature and Language Lessons. Smith. D. C. Heath
&Co.

Physiology.

1. Health Lessons. Walker. American Book Company.

2. How to Get Strong. Blaikie.

3. How to Teach Physiology. Blaisdell. Ginn & Co.

4. Hints for Teachers of Physiology. Bowditch. D. C. Heath & Co.

Physical Culture.

1. Physical Culture. Preece. C. W. Bardeen.

2. Progressive Gymnastic Day's Orders. Enehuske. Silver, Burdett

&Co.

3. Manual of School Gymnastics. Smart. American Book Com-

pany.

4. Americanized Delsarte Culture. Bishop. Chautauqua-Century

Press.

Reading.

1. How to Teach Reading. HaM. D. C. Heath & Co.

2. Rational Method in Reading. Ward. Silver, Burdett & Co.

3. Manual of Synthetic Reading. Pollard. Western Publishing

House.

4. Reading as a Fine Art. Legouve. Boston, 1887.

5. Columbian Selections. Carrington. J. B. Lippincott Company.

6. Tales from Shakespeare. J. B. Lippincott Company.

388 APPENDIX

7. Mastery of Books. Koopman. American Book Company.

8. School Libraries. Ginn & Co.

9. Worcester's Comprehensive Dictionary. J. B. Lippincott Com-

pany.

10. Standard Dictionary. Funk & Wagnalls Company.

11. Century Dictionary. The Century Company.

Singing.

1. Educational Music Course. Mason. Ginn & Co.

2. Normal Course of Music in the School Room. Lyman. Silver,

Burdett & Co.

3. Teacher's Manual of Music. Tufts and Holt. Silver, Burdett & Co.

4. Science of Esthetics. Day. G. P. Putnam's Sons.

Spelling.

1. Normal Course in Spelling. Dunton. Silver, Burdett & Co.

2. Advanced Speller. Pollard. Western Publishing House.

3. Scientific Alphabet. Van De Venter. Funk & Wagnalls Company.

4. The Orthoepist. Alfred Ayres. D. Appleton & Co.

Writing.

1. Theory of Penmanship. Spencer. Ivison,Blakeman, Taylor & Co.

2. Vertical Edition of Spencerian Penmanship. American Book

Company.

3. Vertical Penmanship. Merrill. Maynard, Merrill & Co.

4. How to Teach Writing. Appleton. American Book Company.

INDEX.

Psychologry :

Abstraction, 15, 27 ; aflfections, 20 ; analysis, 18 ; apperception, 16,
50 ; association tracks, 13 ; attention, 23 ; choice, 22 ; classification,
17 ; conception, 16 ; conscience, 15 ; consciousness, 16, 26 ; curi-
osity, 21 ; decision, 22 ; deduction, 18 ; definition, 24 ; desires, 20
direct comparison, 17 ; emotions, 19 ; expectations, 21 ; fear, 21
generalization, 15 ; habit, 13, 33 ; hate, 18 ; hope, 21 ; ideas, 12
ideation, 12, 49 ; idea of identity in thought, 28 ; imagination, 14,
27, 42 ; indirect comparison, 18 ; induction, 18 ; interaction of
mental activities, 25 ; intellect, 12 ; intention, 23 ; interest, 21 ;
judgment, 17 ; knowing, 19 ; knowledge, 19 ; laws of mental ac-
tivity, 25 ; limits of imagination, 28 ; limits of mental development,
30 ; love, 18 ; memory, 13, 27, 42 ; middle term, 18 ; mind, 24 ;
motives, 22 ; neurosis, 26 ; passion, 20 ; perception, 13, 41 ; prem-
ises, 18 ; psychology, 11 ; psychosis, 26 ; purpose, 23 ; reasoning,

18 ; resolution, 23 ; sensation, 12, 26 ; sensibility, 19, 43 ; simple
emotions, 19 ; synthesis, 17 ; stages of mental development, 29 ;
summation of stimuli, 25 ; syllogism, 19, 50 ; taste, 15 ; thinking,

19 ; thought, 17, 42 ; thoughts, 18 ; total interaction of mental ac-
tivities, 28 ; trend of imagination, 27 ; understanding, 19 ; vohtion,
22 ; wiU, 22, 43.

Principles of Teaching :

Adaptation of tasks, 36 ; arts, 49 ; adaptation of lessons, 67 ; bio-
logical sciences, 46 ; catalogue of correlated studies, 53, 55 ; causes
before laws, etc., 62 ; " Committee of Fifteen," 53, 56, 57 ; "Com-
mittee on Secondary Education in Pennsylvania," 53, 58 ; concen-
tration in exercises, 44 ; concentration in programs, 52 ; concrete
before abstract ideas, 60 ; correlation of exercises, 41 ; correlation
of sciences, 65 ; correlation of studies, 52 ; courses of studies, 52 ;
culture of instruction, 72, 73 ; definition of education, 39 ; direct
relation of ideas, 50 ; directing the pupil, 36 ; emancipating the
pupil in instruction, 37, 74 ; exercise the law of development, 41 ;
facts defined, 45 ; geography classified, 47 ; habits in education, 33;

389

390 INDEX

ideas before names and signs, 59 ; ideas before truths, 59 ; ideal of
education, 38 ; ideal instruction, 75 ; interesting instruction, 69 ;
limitations of mental capacity, '38 ; limitations of development, 44 ;
man's capacity, 33 ; mathematics, 46 ; mental capacity, 34 ; mental
sciences, 47 ; nature of education, 33, 34 ; nature of knowledge,
45 ; nature of man, 33 ; natural sciences, 46 ; needs of the whole
pupil in instruction, 70 ; order of facts of sciences, 63 ; order of
principles of sciences, 64 ; particular before general ideas, 61 ; par-
ticular before general truths, 61 ; philosophy, 65 ; physical ca-
pacity of man, 34 ; physical sciences, 46 ; play, 35 ; principles, 41,
59, 67 ; principles of culture, 41 ; principles of instruction, 67 ;
principles of knowledge, 59 ; programmes, 54, 58 ; psychology of
science, 49 ; pupil's emancipation, 37 ; right method of instruction,
71 ; self-activity in education, 35 ; self-supervision, 37 ; science,
45 ; species of man's capacity, 34 ; species of education, 40 ; species
of knowledge, 45 ; specific methods of instruction, 74 ; specific
syllogistic features of the sciences, 51 ; stimulating the pupil, 36 ;
succession of lessons, 68 ; supervising the pupil, 35 ; syllogism, 50 ;
system in self-activity, 35, 36 ; theology, 49 ; work, 35.

Methods of Teaching :

Arithmetic, 240 ; composition, 169 ; drawing, 328 ; geography, 282 ;
grammar, 204 ; history, 310 ; manual training, 347 ; mental culture,
79 ; object lessons, 89 ; physiology, 359 ; physical culture, 363 ;
reading, 106 ; singing, 371 ; spelling, 145 ; writing, 131.

Arithmetic :

Analysis of numbers, 242 ; comparison of numbers, 242 ; courses
of arithmetic, 247 ; culture value of arithmetic, 280 ; deduction in
arithmetic, 245 ; definition of arithmetic, 246 ; history of arith-
metic, 246 ; importance of arithmetic, 280 ; induction in arith-
metic, 244 ; instruction-value of arithmetic, 247 ; language of
number-operations, 242 ; nature of arithmetic, 240 ; nature of mxm
bers, 240 ; number-operations, 241 ; observation in arithmetic, 244
practical value of arithmetic, 281 ; psychology of arithmetic, 244
subject of arithmetic, 240, 243 ; synthesis of numbers, 241 ; train-
ing of teachers of arithmetic, 281.

Elementary Arithmetic :

Borrowing, 258 ; carrying, 257 ; concepts of operation, 250 ; deci-
mal fractions, 264 ; denominate numbers, 265 ; dividing, 260 ; di-

INDEX 391

vision by fractions, 263 ; ends in view in elementary arithmetic,
249 ; exercises, 253 ; fraction-concepts, 261 ; Grube treatment of
" four," 255 ; illustrative lessons, 255 ; means, 254 ; method of in-
struction, 249 ; multiplying, 260 ; names of numbers, 256 ; number-
concepts, 249 ; number-language, 251 ; number-operations, 252 ;
order of subjects, 254 ; problems, 253 ; speed-drills in "four," op-
erations, 260 ; tables, 259 ; "terms" of a fraction, 262 ; two-thirds
and four-sixths, 262 ; two-thirds of three-fourths, 263.

Intermediate Arithmetic :

Axioms, 266 ; concepts, 266 ; ends in view, 266 ; method of inter-
mediate arithmetic, 266 ; order of subjects, 269 ; principles, 267 ;
problems, 269 ; rules, 266, 268.

Written Arithmetic :

Answers, 270 ; assignment of lessons, 271 ; assignment of problems,
272 ; criticisms, 273 ; attention to general truths, 274 ; importance
of reviews, 274 ; objects of recitation, 272 ; preparing the board,
272 ; preparing lessons, 271 ; problems, 269 ; pupil's explanation
of problems, 273 ; plan of recitation, 272 ; teacher's part in prob-
lems, 274 ; working of problems, 273.

Mental Arithmetic :

Board-work, 277 ; chance assignment of problems, 276 ; common
method of recitation, 276 ; discipline of mental arithmetic, 277 ;
importance of mental arithmetic, 277 ; nature of mental arithmetic,
275 ; " parts" method of assigning problems, 276 ; plea for mental
arithmetic, 278 ; practical value of mental arithmetic, 278 ; prepa-
ration of lessons, 276 ; recitation, 276 ; silent method of solving
problems, 277 ; solution of problems, 275.

Higher Arithmetic :

Ends in view, 278 ; high-school arithmetic, 279 ; method of in-
struction, 279 ; normal-school arithmetic, 279 ; subjects of higher
arithmetic, 279.

Composition :

Capitals, 182 ; constructing a composition, 177, 180 ; correcting a
composition, 179, 201 ; criticising a composition, 178 ; cumulating

392 INDEX

materials, 169, 179, 196 ; diction, 180 ; figures of speech, 181 ; fin-
ishing touches, 178, 182 ; importance of composition, 202 ; instruc-
tion in composition, 179 ; mechanical execution, 177 ; nature of
composition, 169 ; outUnes, 171 to 176 ; plan of construction, 170,
180, 200 ; principles of instruction, 182 ; punctuation, 182 ; selec-
tion of subjects, 169, 179, 195 ; species of composition, 170 ; struc-
ture of sentences, 181 ; taste in composition, 182.

Elementary Composition :

Anecdotes, 191 ; committing, 188 ; describing objects, 190 ; de-
scribing actions, 190 ; describing pictures, 191 ; elhpses, 186 ; imi-
tation, 187 ; names of objects, 185 ; names of actions, 186 ; narra-
tives, 191 ; original sentences, 186, 189 ; poems, 188 ; simple sen-
tences, 186 ; simple letters, 189 ; stories, 191.

Intermediate Composition :

Acquisition of style, 199 ; acquisition of vocabulary, 197 ; correct-
ing a composition, 201 ; cumulating materials, 196 ; diction, 194 ;
figures of rhetoric, 194 ; letters, 193 ; original exercises, 195 ; plan
of construction, 200 ; poetry and prose, 194 ; selection of subjects,
195 ; sentence-qualities, 194 ; substance of reading lessons, 192 ;
style, 199 ; synopsis of lessons, 193 ; vocabulary, 197 ; written reci-
tations in various studies, 192 ; writing a composition, 200.

Higher Composition :

Aims, 202 ; requisites, 202.

Drawing :

Courses of drawing, 333 ; culture value of drawing, 344 ; deduction
in drawing, 331 ; definition of drawing, 332 ; form-facts of objects,
330 ; form-laws of objects, 330 ; history of drawing, 333 ; induction
in drawing, 330 ; importance of drawing, 344 ; instruction in draw-
ing, 333 ; instruction-value of drawing, 345 ; laws of form-repre-
sentation, 331 ; length of lines, 328 ; linear representation of forms,
328 ; linear representation of objects, 332 ; marks of expression,
329 ; method of study, 330 ; nature of drawing, 328 ; observation
in drawing, 330 ; possibilities of the pupil, 334 ; practical value of
drawing, 345 ; psychology of drawing, 330 ; representation-facts of
form, 330 ; training of drawing-teachers, 346 ; type-form analysis
of objects, 331.

INDEX 393

Elementary Drawing :

Cylinder, 340 ; dictation by line, 341 ; illustrative lessons, 336-
341 ; method of instruction, 336 ; preparation of lessons, 336 ;
recitation, 336-338 ; subjects of elementary drawing, 335 ; sphere,
339 ; cube-faces, 340.

Intermediate Drawing :

Method of instruction, 342; subjects of intermediate drawing,
342.

Higher Drawing :

Method of instruction, 344 ; subjecis of higher drawing, 343.

Geography :

Culture-value of geography, 309 ; explanation, 283 ; history of
geography, 285 ; importance of geography, 309 ; instruction in
geography, 286 ; instruction- value of geography, 309 ; nature of
geography, 282 ; necessary courses, 287, 288, 289 ; observation in
geography, 283 ; practical value of geography, 309 ; psychology of
geography, 282 ; relations of geography, 284 ; subject of geogra-
phy, 282 ; species of geography, 283 ; teachers of geography, 309.

Elementary Geography :

Climate, 294 ; continents, 296 ; countries, 298 ; deductions, 290 ;
development of concepts, 289 ; direction, 292-297 ; discovery of
facts, 289 ; distance, 293 ; distribution of land and water, 296 ; ends
in view, 289 ; form of the earth, 295, 301 ; inductions, 289 ; illustra-
tive lessons, 297 ; lesson-method, 290 ; motions of the earth, 296 ;
people, 295 ; plants, 301 ; position, 292, 297 ; productions, 294 ; rep-
resentation, 291, 293 ; seasons, 301 ; soil, 294, 300 ; subjects of ele-
mentary geography, 292 ; surfaces, 293 ; water, 293.

Intermediate Geography :

Deductions of intermediate geography, 304 ; ends in view, 303 ;
enlargement of concepts, 303 ; inductions of intermediate geog-
raphy, 304 ; lesson-method, 304 ; map-drawing, 305 ; multiplica-
tion of facts, 303 ; preparation of lessons, 306 ; recitation, 306 ;
subjects of intermediate geography, 306.

394 INDEX

Higher Geography :

College geography, 308 ; high-school geography, 308 ; methods
of higher geography, 308 ; normal-school geography, 308 ; tasks of
higher geography, 307 ; university geography, 308.

Grammar :

Analysis, 207 ; construction of sentences, 207 ; courses of gram-
mar, 210 ; culture- value of grammar, 237 ; deduction in grammar,
206 ; history of grammar, 208 ; importance of grammar, 237 ; in-
duction in grammar, 206 ; instruction in grammar, 210 ; instruc-
tion-value of grammar, 238 ; method of study, 205 ; nature of
grammar, 204 ; observation in grammar, 205 ; parsing, 207 ; prac-
tical value of grammar, 239 ; psychology of grammar, 205 ; sub-
ject of grammar, 204 ; teachers of grammar, 239.

Elementary Grammar:

Adjectives, 215 ; adverbs, 216 ; cases, 219 ; comparison, 220 ; con-
junctions, 218 ; deductions of elementary grammar, 212 ; elements
of a sentence, 221 ; illustrative lessons, 214 ; inductions of ele-
mentary grammar, 211 ; irregular verbs, 221 ; methods of instruc-
tion, 214 ; modifiers, 217 ; nouns, 215 ; objects of elementary gram-
mar, 211 ; observation in elementary grammar, 214 ; predicate of
a sentence, 217 ; prepositions, 218 ; pronouns, 218 ; regular verbs,
221 ; rules of grammar, 222 ; subjects of elementary grammar, 212 ;
subject of a sentence, 216 ; tense, 220 ; verbs, 215.

Intermediate Grammar :

Abbreviations in parsing, 226 ; analysis, 228 ; abbreviations in
analysis, 230 ; diagrams in grammar, 231 ; deductions, 223 ; defi-
nitions, 224 ; eclectic analysis, 230 ; eclectic parsing, 227 ; en-
thymeme statements in analysis, 229 ; enthymeme statements in
parsing, 225; errors in analysis, 232; errors in parsing, 228;
exercises in syntax, 233 ; false syntax, 233 ; forms of analysis,
228 ; forms of parsing, 225 ; grammatical description, 230 ; import-
ance of exercises in syntax, 234 ; inductions in intermediate gram-
mar, 223 ; inflections, 224 ; method of instruction, 234 ; objects of
analysis, 233 ; objects of parsing, 228 ; objects of intermediate
grammar, 223 ; original sentences, 234 ; parsing, 225 ; preparation
of lessons, 235 ; proportion of oral and written analysis, 232 ; pro-
portion of oral and written parsing, 227 ; recitation, 235 ; relation
of analysis and synthesis, 232 ; rules, 224 ; simple statements in

INDEX 395

analysis, 229 ; simple statements in parsing, 226 ; subjects of inter-
mediate grammar, 223 ; text-books of intermediate grammar, 234.

Higher Grammar:

High-school grammar, 236 ; methods of instruction, 237 ; normal-
school grammar, 236 ; objects of higher grammar, 236 ; prepara-
tory school grammar, 237 ; subjects of higher grammar, 236.

History :

Courses of history, 315 ; culture-value of history, 327 ; deduction in
history, 313 ; definition of history, 313 ; history of history, 314 ;
importance of history, 326 ; induction in history, 311, 312 ; in-
struction in history, 315 ; instruction- value of history, 327 ; nature
of history, 310 ; observation in history, 311 ; psychology of history,
310 ; species of history, 313 ; subject of history, 310 ; teachers of
history, 327 ; theories of history, 312.

Elementary History :

Construction of events, 315 ; inquiry into the relation of events,
316 ; means in elementary history, 317 ; method of instruction,
316 ; recitation, 317 ; subjects of elementary history, 319 ; tasks of
elementary history, 315.

Intermediate History :

Assignment of lessons, 324 ; imagination of complex lessons, 320 ;
inquiry into remote relations of events, 321 ; means of instruction,
321 ; method of instruction, 321 ; oral recitations, 323 ; prepara-
tion of lessons, 322 ; recitation, 322 ; reviews, 324 ; tasks of inter-
mediate history, 320 ; written recitations, 323.

Higher History :

College history, 326 ; high-school history, 326 ; normal-school his-
tory, 326 ; tasks of higher history, 325 ; university history, 326.

Manual Training :

Courses of instruction, 352 ; culture-value, 357 ; exercises, 348,
352 ; history of manual training, 348 ; importance, 357 ; instruction,
351 ; instruction-value, 357 ; manual training-room, 355 ; material
equipments, 355 ; manual training in the United States, 348 ;
methods of instruction, 354 ; practical value, 358 ; preparation of
lessons, 355 ; prospects of manual training, 349 ; pupil's prepara-

396 INDEX

tion of lessons, 356 ; recitation, 356 ; studies, 347 ; tasks of manual
training, 347 ; teachers of manual training, 358 ; teacher's prepa-
ration of lessons, 355 ; tools, 355 ; working materials, 355.

Elementary Manual Training :

Ends in view, 353 ; exercises, 353 ; recitation, 356 ; studies, 353.

Intermediate Manual Training :

Ends in view, 353 ; exercises, 353 ; studies, 353.

Higher Manual Training :

Ends in view, 354 ; exercises, 354 ; studies, 354.

Mental Culture :

Imagination, 83 ; memory, 80 ; perception, 79 ; sensibility, 85 ;
thought, 84 ; will, 86 to 88.

Object Lessons :

Color, 93 ; course of object lessons, 91 ; ends in view, 89 ; form,
91 ; history of object lessons, 90 ; importance of object lessons,
104 ; instruction in object lessons, 91 ; method of instruction, 104 ;
method of study, 90 ; nature oi object lessons, 89 ; nature studies,
102 ; parts, 99 ; qualities, 101 ; subjects of study in object lessons,
89.

Color :

Analysis of compounds, 95 ; broken colors, 96 ; complements, 9.^ ;
course of lessons, 96 ; harmonies, 96 ; importance of color-lessons,
98 ; instruction in colors, 96 ; methods of instruction, 97 ; prepa-
ration of lessons, 97 ; recitation, 97 ; scales of color, 94 ; solar spec-
trum, 94 ; standard colors, 94 ; synthesis of colors, 95.

Form :

Elementary forms, 92 ; embodiment of forms, 91 ; importance of
teaching forms, 93 ; method of teaching forms, 92.

Nature Studies :

Botany, 102 ; courses of lessons, 102 ; culture-value, 103 ; import-
ance of nature studies, 103 ; instruction-value of nature studies,
104 ; method of instruction, 103 ; practical value of nature studies,
104 ; zoology, 102.

INDEX 397

Parts :

Course of lessons, 99 ; importance of lessons on parts, 100 ; method
of instruction, 100.

Qualities :

Course of lessons, 101 ; importance of lessons on qualities, 102 ;
method of instruction, 101.

Physiology :

Common-school physiology, 360 ; course of physiology, 360 ; cul-
ture-value, 362 ; functions of body, 359 ; health of body, 359 ;
higher physiology, 361 ; history of physiology, 360 ; importance,
361 ; instruction in physiology, 360 ; instruction-value of physi-
ology, 362 ; life-value of physiology, 362 ; nature of physiology,
359 ; psychology of physiology, 360 ; subjects of physiology, 359.

Physical Culture :

Adoption of a system, 369 ; classification of physical exercises,
365; course of exercises, 362; history of physical culture, 364 ;
importance of physical culture, 370 ; instruction in physical cul-
tvire, 365 ; lower-limb movements, 365 ; method of instruction in
physical culture, 368 ; nature of physical culture, 363 ; necessity
of physical culture, 363 ; preparation of lessons, 368 ; principles
of physical culture, 366 ; recitation, 369 ; relation of body and
mind, 364 ; trunk movements, 365 ; upper-limb movements, 365.

Reading :

Culture-value of reading, 130 ; elocution, 109 ; history of reading,
111 ; ideal vocabulary, 113 ; importance of reading, 130 ; laws of ac-
centuation, 109 ; laws of articulation, 108 ; laws of enunciation, 107 ;
laws of pronunciation, 107 ; laws of syllabication, 108 ; methods
of instruction, 112 ; nature of reading, 106 ; practical value of read-
ing, 130 ; progress in vocabulary, 114 ; pronunciation, 106 ; psy-
chology of reading. 111 ; teacher's tasks, 112 ; teacher's training,
130.

Elementary Reading :

Alphabetic method, 121 ; alphabetic names, 120 ; analysis of anal-
ogous words, 117 ; analysis of representative words, 116 ; capital
letters, 120 ; diacritical marks, 119 ; discovery of rules, 118 ; pho-

398 INDEX

netic method, 122 ; Pollard method, 122 ; script letters, 119 ; sen-
tence building, 118 ; teacher's preparation of lessons, 118 ; teach-
ing ability, 117 ; transition to visible words, 116 ; vocabulary, 115 ;
"word" method, 121.

Intermediate Reading :

Analysis, 124 ; development of literary taste, 129 ; elocutionary
exercises, 127 ; enunciation drills, 127 ; fluency, 109 ; inductive
discoveries, 118 ; language lessons, 118 ; lisping, 128 ; mental phase
of reading, 128 ; stammering, 128 ; supplementary reading, 129 ;
synthesis, 117.

Singing- :

Courses in singing, 376 ; culture-value, 379 ; disciplinary value,
380 ; force of tones, 372 ; harmony of tones, 372 ; history of sing-
ing, 374 ; importance of singing, 379 ; instruction in singing, 376 ;
instruction- value of singing, 380 ; melody, 372 ; method of instruc-
tion, 378 ; nature of singing, 371 ; pitch of tones, 371 ; preparation
of lessons, 378 ; production of tones, 371 ; public-school singing,
377 ; pupil's preparation of lessons, 378 ; recitation, 378 ; recita-
tion tasks, 378 ; reading of notes, 374 ; representation of tones,
373 ; rhythm of tones, 372 ; singing of the "masses," 376 ; singing
of teachers, 377 ; specialists in singing, 377 ; teacher's preparation
of lessons, 378 ; time of tones, 372.

Spelling :

Course of lessons, 167 ; discipline of spelling, 168 ; history of Eng-
lish orthography, 145 ; importance of spelling, 167 ; instruction
in spelling, 149 ; nature of spelling, 145 ; observation in spelling,
150 ; origin of alphabet, 145 ; physical structure of words, 148 ;
practical value of spelling, 168 ; preparation of lessons, 150 ; prin-
ciples of instruction, 165 ; psychology of spelling, 149 ; recitation,
152 ; recreations, 160 ; relative merits of oral and written spelling,
162 ; rules of spelling, 151 ; species of spelling, 152, 155 ; spelling
books, 167 ; spelling matches, 160 ; spelling reforms, 147 ; supple-
mentary devices, 169 ; trapping, 159 ; vocabulary lessons, 167.

Oral Spelling :

Advantages, 164 ; assigning words, 155 ; meaning of words, 157 ;
preliminaries, 155 ; spelling the words, 156.

INDEX 399

Written Spelling :

Advantages, 162 ; assigning lessons, 154 ; assigning words, 152 ;
corrections, 154 ; preliminaries, 152 ; spelling the words, 153.

Writing :

Artistic penmanship, 143 ; capital letters, 142 ; combined move-
ments, 140 ; courses in writing, 136 ; desirable qualities of pen-
manship, 133 ; disciplinary value, 143 ; elementary course, 137 ;
figures, 142 ; finger movements, 139 ; fore-arm movements, 140 ;
form elements, 132 ; form lessons, 141 ; higher course, 142 ; history
of writing, 134 ; holding the pen, 139 ; importance of penmanship,
143 ; instruction in writing, 136 ; intermediate course, 138 ; merits
of slanting writing, 135 ; merits of vertical writing, 135 ; methods
of instruction, 137, 138 ; nature of writing, 131 ; physical act of
writing, 131 ; position at desk, 139 ; psychology of writing, 131 ;
shading, 142 ; small letters, 141 ; spacing, 142 ; structure of script,
132 ; tasks of writing courses, 137, 138 ; teachers of penmanship,
143 ; whole-arm movements, 140.